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Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
About the Author xv
Introduction to Electrochemistry of Solid Electrolyte Gas Sensors 1
Electrochemistry of Zirconia Solid Electrolytes as the Basis for Understanding Electrochemical Gas Sensors 1
Solid Oxygen-Ionic Electrolytes 1
Transport Properties 4
Electrophysical Properties of Solid Electrolytes 6
Aging of Solid Electrolytes 11
Single-Phase Solid Electrolytes 12
Two-Phase Solid Electrolytes 14
An Electron Model of Solid Oxygen-Ionic Electrolytes Used in Gas Sensors 15
Electrode Processes in Solid Electrolyte Sensors 30
Electrode Reaction within the Triple-Phase Boundary 30
Diffusion of Oxygen Atoms 33
Role of the Electric Double Layer in Electrode Reactions 36
Helmholtz Double Layer 36
Gouy-Chapman Double Layer 37
Stern Modification of the Diffuse Double Layer 38
References 39
Mathematical Modeling of Zirconia Gas Sensors with Distributed Parameters 43
Complete Mathematical Model of Electrochemical Gas Sensors 43
Modeling Interactions of Oxygen with theZirconia Sensor 50
Modeling Interactions of Various Gases with Non-Nernstian Zirconia Sensors 60
Description of Non-Nernstian Behavior 60
Non-Nernstian Zirconia-Based N[subscript x] Sensors 62
Mathematical Formulation of Zirconia-Based NO[subscript x] Sensors 64
Numerical Mathematical Models of Zirconia Gas Sensors 71
Identification Parameters of Mathematical Models 80
Verification Adequacy of Mathematical Models to Real Gas Sensors 83
Nomenclature 87
Subscripts 88
References 89
Metrological Characteristics of Non-Nernstian Zirconia Gas Sensors 93
Non-Nernstian Zirconia Gas Sensors 93
Mixed-Potential NO[subscript x] Sensors 93
Description of Nernstian Behavior 97
Mixed-Potential Gas Sensors 98
Concepts of the Total-NO[subscript x] Sensor Based on Mixed Potential 101
Development of the NO[subscript x] Sensor's Design 104
Mixed-Potential Hydrocarbon Sensors 115
Impedance-Based Zirconia Gas Sensors 119
Future Trends 125
References 128
Zirconia Sensors for Measurement of Gas Concentration in Molten Metals 135
Zirconia Sensors for the Measurement of Oxygen Activity in Melts 135
Polycrystalline Zirconia Sensors 135
Pe' Parameter Measurements and Sensing Properties 138
Single-Crystal Zirconia Sensors 143
Zirconia Sensors Based on Shaped Eutectic Composites 154
Impedance Method for the Analysis of In-Situ Diagnostics and the Control of an Electrolyte/Liquid-Metal Electrode Interface 161
Galvano-Harmonic Method 163
Impulse Galvanic-Static Method 170
Measuring Oxygen Concentration in Lead-Bismuth Heat Carriers 175
Regulation of Oxygen Partial Pressure in Melts by Zirconia Pumps 176
Characteristics of Lamellar Oxygen Pumps 176
Potentiometric Mode of the Oxygen Pump 177
Galvano-Static Mode of the Oxygen Pump 186
Characteristics of Cylindrical Oxygen Pumps 188
Potentiometric Mode 188
Galvano-Static Mode 191
References 192
Manufacturing Technologies of Zirconia Gas Sensors 197
Vacuum-Tight Technologies of Joining Zirconia to Ceramic Insulators 197
Vacuum-Tight Technologies of Joining Zirconia to Sensor Construction Materials 207
Nanotechnologies for Zirconia Gas Sensors 213
Limitations of Existing Technologies and Future Trends 218
References 222
Errors of Measurement of Zirconia Gas Sensors 227
Bases of Errors Theory in Relation to Electrochemical Gas Sensors 227
Analysis of Systematic Errors of Zirconia Gas Sensors 232
Analysis of the Main Components of Errors of Zirconia Gas Sensors 234
Error Stipulated by the Reference Pressure Instability 239
Error Stipulated by the Variations of Emf 240
Error Stipulated by Inaccuracy of Setting and Measurement of the SEC Temperature 241
Calculation of Errors on the Basis of Experimental Data 243
References 251
Organization and Planning of Testing Zirconia Sensors 253
Main Principles of Testing Zirconia Sensors 253
Sensing Mechanisms of Zirconia Gas Sensors 253
Sensor Structures and Devices 254
Zirconia Sensor Systems 254
Measurement and Control Systems 254
Selecting the Number of Independent Variables (Factors) 256
Determination of Experimental Data Volume 258
Sequence of Experiment 260
Data Processing 260
Planning of Experiments 265
Development of the Industrial Prototype of the Sensor 266
Product Verification 266
Training 267
Reliability Testing of Zirconia Gas Sensors 267
References 271
Index 273
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