The crisis of medieval Russia, 1200-1304 Book

In his text "Russia and the Golden Horde," Charles Halperin effectively investigates the developments within Russian society under Mongol rule. Halperin argues that prior scholarship regarding this period has been distorted by academic bias and misleading source material, mechanisms that have created a false sense of brutality and stagnation towards the era. As he states "An unfortunate combination of circumstances involving the nature of the historical record and centuries-old prejudices has led many historians to dismiss this period as one in which Russian society was in a state of suspended animation or of cultural and economic decay." Instead, Halperin asserts that Mongol rule over the Russians involved a much more complex relationship that was simultaneously both mutually beneficial and destructive for the respective societies.

One of the most important aspects to understanding the Russian response to Mongol domination is the geographic and cultural situation of Russia in relation to foreign entities. The Russian people established themselves in a relatively permeable location that that was influenced by both Western and Eastern societies. In many respects they were a component of the European commonwealth of nations through their acceptance of Byzantine Christianity, and yet they also maintained regular affiliations with the Islamic caliphate and various steppe tribes. The consequence of this interaction was a cosmopolitan attitude of cooperation and tolerance that was predicated upon economic and political imperatives. As Halperin contends, "It was often expedient for each side, when warring with one group of infidels, to make alliances with another...In the interest of profit, visitors and hosts alike learned to make concessions to each other's faiths, diets, and customs. The obvious benefits of cooperation demanded social and cultural accommodation." Through this early collaboration, Russian society was exposed to foreign sensibilities and thus not overwhelmed by the social differences that accompanied the arrival of the Mongols.

The previous system of interaction also influenced the manner in which the Russians perceived their subjugation by the Mongols, allowing them to consider the embarrassment rather less humiliating than would otherwise be expected. Because of the frequency in which the Russian military confronted the forces of outside tribes and nations, occasionally even experiencing defeat, "Russian writers recorded the events of the Mongol period within the conceptual framework evolved during the Kievan period...Through an adept and remarkably consistent use of language, in which they eschewed the terminology of conquest and even of liberation, the bookmen avoided coming to grips with the ideological conundrum of their own defeat." This view was also encouraged by the nature of the Mongol structure of occupation itself. Unlike other conquests where victors installed themselves directly as aristocratic leadership over a captured province, the Mongols did not directly garrison the whole of Russian territory. On the contrary, because of the proximity of nearby nomadic steppe armies, the Mongols found it more efficient to govern from outside Russia itself. Halperin condenses this circumstance by contending "The result for Russia was prolonged subjugation to Mongols whose cavalry remained as deadly as ever...Russia nonetheless was left, to a degree, to its own devices."

The ultimate ramifications of the Mongol domination are somewhat difficult to ascertain given the complex relations which defined the connection between Russia and the Golden Horde. Assuredly, the conflict initially involved enormous losses for the Russians, both in regards to property and human life. Yet this destruction eventually progressed into a restructuring of the Russian commercial system which allowed economic practices to flourish. Tangible examples of this phenomenon include the increasing wealth of the Russian Orthodox Church as a result of Mongol patronage, and the rise of Moscow as a political center due to the adoption of various Tatar establishments. Haleprin resolves this dichotomy by explaining "Unquestionably, the conquest was a catastrophe, but a catastrophe need not have permanent effects. The Russian economy recovered from the devastating campaigns of 1237-1240 and survived the harsh regimen of taxation and exploitation that followed. Furthermore, by fostering international trade, especially with the Orient, the Golden Horde fostered the resurgence of the Russian economy and the subsequent growth of Russian power."

The legacy of the Mongol conquest continues to be a subject hotly debated by scholars in the field of Russian history. Some consider the period to be responsible for the "backwardness" which dominated Russia in relation to Europe for the next several centuries. Others see the era as a masked blessing which provided Russian society with the elements to successfully expand and diversify. Both approaches however, concur in that they respect the repercussions, positive or negative, that the Mongols had on the Russian nation. Halperin states "The Horde's bureaucratic evolution, foreign policies, and internal politics all had enormously important consequences for Russia and must be part of any coherent vision of the times." Arguably, the legacy of the Golden Horde is equally pertinent to a holistic understanding of many modern Russian institutions and attitudes as well.