The Indo-Aryan Languages Book

	List of illustrations	ix
	List of tables	xi
	Preface	xii
	Acknowledgements	xiv
	Note on transcription	xv
1	Introduction	1
2	The modern Indo-Aryan languages and dialects	8
2.1	Indo-Aryan: a bird's eye view	8
2.2	"Language" vs. "dialect" in the Indo-Aryan context	23
2.3	Hindi and Urdu	27
2.4	Nomenclature	30
3	The historical context and development of Indo-Aryan	32
3.1	Genetic connections	32
3.2	Migration hypotheses and associated problems	34
3.3	The traditional Indian view	37
3.4	The new linguistic environment	39
3.5	Subsequent spread of Indo-Aryan in the subcontinent and beyond	43
3.6	Foreign influences and contacts	47
3.7	The historical stages of Indo-Aryan	50
3.8	Sociolinguistic aspects of the history of Indo-Aryan	55
3.9	Comparative reconstruction	60
4	The nature of the New Indo-Aryan lexicon	61
4.1	General considerations	61
4.2	The traditional analysis: tadbhava and tatsama	64
4.3	The Sanskrit element in NIA	67
4.4	The "foreign" element in NIA: Perso-Arabic	71
4.5	The "foreign" element in NIA: Portuguese	73
4.6	The "foreign" element in NIA: English	74
4.7	The "foreign" element in NIA: pronunciation	75
4.8	NIA creativity: expressive forms	76
4.9	NIA creativity: onomatopoeia and sound symbolism	78
4.10	NIA creativity: echo-formations	80
4.11	NIA creativity: modern neologisms	81
4.12	Common basic vocabulary	84
5	NIA descriptive phonology	86
5.1	Descriptive problems	86
5.2	Secondary subsystems	90
5.3	The NIA consonants	93
5.3.1	Stop position	94
5.3.2	Nasals	95
5.3.3	Laterals and flaps	97
5.3.4	Fricatives	98
5.3.5	Semivowels	99
5.3.6	Voicing	100
5.3.7	Aspiration	101
5.3.8	Other correlations, and special sounds	104
5.3.9	Secondary consonants	105
5.3.10	Overview of NIA consonant "systems"	106
5.4	NIA vowels and associated features	106
5.4.1	NIA oral vowel systems	107
5.4.2	Further remarks on vowels	113
5.4.3	Diphthongs	115
5.4.4	Nasalization	117
5.4.5	Tone and murmur	118
5.4.6	Stress	121
5.5	Distributions	122
5.5.1	General positional privileges	122
5.5.2	Cooccurrence possibilities and constraints	125
5.6	Areal and typological comparisons	131
6	Writing systems	133
6.1	Origins of Brahmi	133
6.2	Evolution and diversification of Brahmi	137
6.3	Legacy of Brahmi	145
6.4	Perso-Arabic script for NIA languages	151
6.5	The Roman script for NIA languages	153
7	Historical phonology	154
7.1	Introduction	154
7.2	Review of OIA phonology	157
7.3	MIA or "Prakritic" developments	166
7.4	Summary of the effects of the MIA changes	184
7.5	MIA local and other qualifications	186
7.6	The Common NIA developments	187
7.7	Effects of the Common NIA changes	191
7.8	Special developments	192
7.9	Exceptions to the mainstream developments	195
7.10	Regional and language-specific innovations	202
7.11	Conclusions	210
8	Nominal forms and categories	212
8.1	Introduction: "forms and categories" vs. "morphology"	212
8.2	Gender	217
8.3	Number	223
8.4	Case	230
8.5	Definiteness	248
8.6	Adjectives	250
8.7	Pronouns	251
9	Verbal forms and categories	257
9.1	Introduction: the basic NIA system	257
9.2	Concord	259
9.3	Aspect	262
9.4	Tense/mood	279
9.5	Finite verb paradigms of the principal NIA languages	291
9.6	Verb stem I: valence and voice	315
9.7	Non-finite forms	321
9.8	Verb stem II: Aktionsart and the compound verb	327
10	Syntax	331
10.1	Introduction	331
10.2	The simple sentence: preliminaries	332
10.2.1	Word order	332
10.2.2	The nominal sentence	336
10.3	The problem of Subject in NIA	339
10.3.1	Ergative and quasi-ergative constructions	341
10.3.2	The Dative Subject construction	346
10.3.3	The Passive Agent	356
10.3.4	Other candidates for subjecthood	358
10.3.5	Summary	362
10.4	Object in NIA	364
10.5	The Noun Phrase	369
10.6	The Adjective Phrase	373
10.7	The Verb Phrase	373
10.8	Modifications of the simple sentence	387
10.8.1	Question formation	387
10.8.2	Negation	389
10.8.3	Displacement	394
10.8.4	Deletion	396
10.9	Coordinate structures and the "conjunctive participle"	397
10.10	Complex sentences	401
10.10.1	Preliminaries	401
10.10.2	Nominal clauses	402
10.10.3	Adjectival clauses	408
10.10.4	Adverbial clauses	415
10.10.5	Conditional constructions	418
10.10.6	Causative constructions	419
Appendix I	Inventory of NIA languages and dialetcs	420
Appendix II	Schemes of NIA subclassification	446
	Notes	464
	Bibliography	480
	Index of languages	511
	General index	526