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Preface xi
List of abbreviations xiii
Introduction 1
Questions and approaches 1
Previous work 4
Assumptions 14
The present approach 20
On uniformitarianism 28
Grammaticalization 32
Methodology 33
The parameters 33
Extension 35
Desemanticization 39
Decategorialization 40
Erosion 42
Discussion 45
Problems 46
The present volume 53
An outline of grammatical evolution 57
Introduction 57
Layers 58
Nouns and verbs 59
The first layer: nouns 60
The second layer: verbs 71
The third layer: adjectives and adverbs 82
The fourth layer: demonstratives, adpositions, aspects, and negation 87
The fifth layer 93
The final stages 98
Treating events like objects 100
Evidence from signed languages 108
A scenario of evolution 110
Conclusions 114
Some cognitive abilities of animals 121
Introduction 121
What linguistic abilities do animals have? 125
Communicative intentions 126
Concepts 128
"Lexicon" 135
Functional items 138
Compositionality 143
Argument structure 144
Linear arrangement 146
Coordination 148
Taxonomic concepts 150
Discussion 159
Problems 160
Language-like abilities in animals 162
Grammaticalization in animals? 163
Conclusion 164
On pidgins and other restricted linguistic systems 166
Introduction 167
Kenya Pidgin Swahili (KPS) 169
The rise of new functional categories 175
Discussion 184
Grammaticalization in other pidgins 187
A pidgin window on early language? 193
Other restricted systems 198
An elementary linguistic system? 205
Conclusion 208
Clause subordination 210
Introduction 211
Expansion 216
Integration 224
Relative clauses 224
The demonstrative channel 225
The interrogative channel 229
Complement clauses 229
Introduction 230
The noun channel 230
The verb channel 236
The demonstrative channel 240
The interrogative channel 242
Adverbial clauses 244
Introduction 244
The noun channel 245
The verb channel 248
The demonstrative channel 250
The adverb channel 250
From complementizer or relativizer to adverbial clause subordinator 251
Discussion 254
Conclusions 260
On the rise of recursion 262
What is recursion? 262
A definition 264
Manifestations 266
Simple vs. productive recursion 268
Embedding, iteration, and succession 270
Treatment of recursion in linguistic description 271
Are there languages without recursion? 272
Discussion 273
Animal cognition 276
The noun phrase 279
Attributive possession 280
Modifying compounding 283
Adjectival modification 286
Conclusion 287
Clause subordination 287
Case studies 288
The rise of a relative clause construction 288
The rise of complement and adverbial clauses 291
Loss of recursion 293
Conclusions 294
Early language 298
Grammatical evolution 298
Layers 298
From non-language to language 311
Lexicon before syntax 313
Word order 315
Functions of early language 318
Cognition or communication? 318
Motivations underlying grammaticalization 323
Discussion 329
Who were the creators of early language? 331
Did language arise abruptly? 338
Grammaticalization-a human faculty? 342
Looking for answers 345
Conclusions 354
References 357
Index 401
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