The Cost of Counterterrorism Book

Acknowledgments     xi
The Perilous Dichotomy     1
Security and Freedom within Constitutional Constraints     4
The Shift in Power Among the Branches of Government     6
The War Model Versus Criminal Law     7
The Expansion of Executive Authority     10
Legislative Failure: The Counterterrorist Spiral     11
Limits on the Judiciary     20
The Political, Social, and Economic Costs of Counterterrorist Law     25
The Complexity of Rights and Security     29
Indefinite Detention and Coercive Interrogation     33
Controlling Violence in Northern Ireland     35
Indefinite Detention     36
Habeas Corpus Relief     38
The Diplock Courts     42
The End of Indefinite Detention     47
Coercive Interrogation     48
Torture in English Law     48
Coercive Interrogation in Northern Ireland     49
The Case of Ireland v. United Kingdom     54
Aftermath     56
Meeting the Islamist Threat in the United Kingdom     57
Indefinite Detention Revived     58
Torture Revisited     61
Control Orders     63
The Prevention ofTerrorism Act     66
US Detention of Foreign Nationals at Guantanamo Bay     71
Suspending the Geneva Conventions     75
The Legal Arguments     76
Dissent Overruled     80
Habeas Corpus and Judicial Review     83
The Cases of Rasul and Hamdi     83
The Executive's Response     84
Congress and the 2005 Detainee Treatment Act     85
The Case of Hamdan v. Rumsfeld     86
Congress and the 2006 Military Commissions Act     88
International Fallout and Its Effect on US Policy     89
Coercive Interrogation and Torture in the Global War on Terror     91
The Convention Against Torture     93
Applying the New Standards     95
Iraq and the Revision of Interrogation Standards     97
Abu Ghraib     100
Ghost Detainees, Black Sites, and Extraordinary Rendition     103
The World Balks     106
Congress Speaks: The 2005 Detainee Treatment Act Revisited     110
Parallel Costs     111
Domestic Political Power     111
Innocent Victims     114
The Psychological Effects of Indefinite Detention     115
Minority Concerns      116
International Repercussions and Foreign Policy Considerations     120
Financial Counterterrorism     122
Paramilitary Funding in Northern Ireland     123
The State's Response     129
Statutory Measures Before September 11     130
Property Rights and Asset Forfeiture: Laying the Groundwork     131
Anti-Drug Trafficking and Counterterrorism: 1985-91     132
Racketeering in Northern Ireland     134
Counterterrorism and Anti-Drug Trafficking: 1993-2000     135
The Organized Crime Umbrella     139
Expansion of Counterterrorist Finance Law After September 11, 2001     141
The Effects of Expanding Laws     145
Antiterrorist Finance in the United States     146
Measures Before September 11     147
Lists Under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act     148
Designated Foreign Terrorist Organization     149
Money Laundering     151
Al Qaeda Funding     153
Measures After September 11     158
The USA PATRIOT Act: Financial Provisions     160
USA PATRIOT Act: Surveillance Provisions     164
The International Emergency Economic Powers Act     166
The Erosion of Complex Rights      168
The Elimination of Intent     171
Secret Evidence and Due Process Concerns     172
Stigma     175
The Political and Humanitarian Costs     175
Privacy and Surveillance     182
British Statutory Authority for Intelligence Gathering     187
The Interception of Communications     187
Administrative Practice Before 1985     188
The Interception of Communications Act (1985)     190
The Security Service Act (1989 and 1996) and the Intelligence Services Act (1994)     192
The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (2000)     195
Electronic Bugs and Encrypted Data     201
Data Protection     206
European Union Norms and Rules     206
British Data Retention Law     209
Surveillance in Public Space     212
Port and Border Controls     213
Closed-Circut Television     214
The American Surveillance Culture     218
Executive Excesses (1945-75)     223
Congress Responds: The 1978 Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act     229
The USA PATRIOT Act and Its Surveillance Provisions     233
Alterations to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act     233
Delayed-Notice Search Warrants     23
National Security Letters     236
Surveillance Operations Under Other Auspices     243
The Department of Defense     244
Attorney General Guidelines and FBI Surveillance     249
Citizen Reporting Programs     251
Watch Lists     254
US Data-Mining Operations     256
British and American Oversight Compared     261
The Political, Social, Legal, and Economic Consequences     266
Terrorist Speech and Free Expression     273
Political Speech     276
Sedition Versus Free Speech in the United States     276
Offenses Against the State and Public Order in the United Kingdom     283
Treason     283
Unlawful Assembly and Public Order     285
Sedition     290
The Media Ban     293
The Glorification of Terrorism     294
Knowledge-Based Speech     296
Restrictions on Knowledge-Based Speech in the United States     298
Restrictions on Knowledge-Based Speech in the United Kingdom     307
The Secondary Effects of Other Counterterrorism Measures     311
Privileged Speech     317
US Government Employment and Employees' Speech      317
The British Civil Service, Spycatcher, and the Official Secrets Act     322
Calculating Costs     330
Auxiliary Precautions     333
Re-Empowering the Legislature     336
Fostering a Culture of Restraint     336
Replacing Sunset Provisions with Obligatory Reporting Requirements     338
Reinforcing Transparency and Accountability     341
Drawing Lines     345
Distinguishing Between Criminal Law and Counterterrorism: Financial Counterterrorism as an Example     345
Distinguishing Between National Security Threats: Knowledge-Based Speech as an Example     350
Resisting the Alteration of Judicial Rules and Executive Expansion     353
Beyond the Dichotomy     359
Notes     361
Index     469