Synthetic Fuels Handbook: Properties, Process, and Performance Book

Preface     ix
Fuel Sources     1
Conventional Fuel Sources     4
Nonconventional Fuel Sources     5
Tar Sand Bitumen     6
Coal     8
Oil Shale     10
Natural Gas     14
Gas Hydrates     16
Biomass     16
Bioalcohol     18
Synthetic Fuels     19
Production of Synthetic Fuels     22
Thermal Decomposition     22
Gasification     23
The Fischer-Tropsch Process     24
Bioprocesses     25
Natural Gas     27
History     27
Formation and Occurrence     28
Conventional Gas     31
Associated Gas     31
Nonassociated Gas     32
Liquefied Natural Gas     32
Unconventional Gas     33
Coalbed Methane     33
Gas Hydrates     34
Shale Gas     35
Composition     35
Properties     37
Density     37
Heat of Combustion (Energy Content)     40
Volatility, Flammability, and Explosive Properties     40
Environmental Properties     43
Gas Processing     44
Olamine Processes     45
Physical Solvent Processes     47
Metal Oxide Processes     49
Methanol-Based Processes     51
Carbonate-Washing and Water-Washing Processes     52
Sulfur Recovery Processes     55
Hydrogenation and Hydrolysis Processes     57
Uses     57
Fuels from Petroleum and Heavy Oil     63
History     63
Petroleum Recovery     66
Petroleum Refining     67
Dewatering and Desalting     67
Distillation     68
Thermal Processes     70
Catalytic Processes     74
Hydroprocesses     77
Reforming Processes     80
Isomerization Processes     82
Alkylation Processes     83
Polymerization Processes     84
Deasphalting     85
Dewaxing     86
Heavy Oil Refining     88
Petroleum Products and Fuels     90
Gaseous Fuels     90
Liquid Fuels     92
Solid Fuels     100
Fuels from Tar Sand Bitumen      103
Occurrence and Reserves     104
Canada     105
United States     105
Venezuela     107
Other Countries     107
Structure and Properties of Tar Sand     108
Mineralogy     109
Properties     109
Chemical and Physical Properties of Tar Sand Bitumen     110
Composition     112
Properties     114
Mining Technology     115
Bitumen Recovery     116
The Hot Water Process     116
In Situ Processes     117
Upgrading, Refining, and Fuel Production     120
Primary Conversion     122
Secondary Upgrading     124
Other Processes     124
Hydrogen Production     125
Synthetic Crude Oil     125
The Future     126
Fuels from Coal     131
Occurrence and Reserves     131
Formation and Types     134
Coal Formation     134
Coal Types     135
Mining and Preparation     137
Surface Mining     138
Underground Mining     139
Mine Safety and Environment Effects      139
Coal Preparation     141
Uses     141
Gaseous Fuels     145
Gasifiers     146
Gaseous Products     148
Physicochemical Aspects     150
Gasification Processes     153
Underground Gasification     156
The Future     157
Liquid Fuels     157
Physicochemical Aspects     158
Liquefaction Processes     159
Products     161
The Future     162
Solid Fuels     163
Coke     163
Charcoal     164
Environmental Aspects of Coal Utilization     164
Clean Coal Technologies     165
Fuels from Oil Shale     169
Origin     172
History     173
Occurrence and Development     174
Australia     175
Brazil     176
Canada     176
China     177
Estonia     177
Germany     178
Israel     178
Jordan     178
Morocco     179
Russian Federation     179
Thailand     179
United States     179
Liquid Fuels     181
Thermal Decomposition of Oil Shale     181
Mining and Retorting     182
In Situ Technologies     184
Refining Shale Oil     186
The Future     192
Fuels from Synthesis Gas     197
Gasification of Coal     198
Chemistry     199
Processes     201
Gasifiers     202
Gasification of Petroleum Fractions     203
Chemistry     204
Processes     206
Steam-methane Reforming     209
Gasification of Other Feedstocks     212
Fischer-Tropsch     213
Fuels from Biomass     221
Biomass Fuels     223
Feedstock Types     224
Feedstock Properties     227
The Chemistry of Biomass     228
Processes     231
Process Types     231
Environmental Issues     240
Fuels from Biomass     241
Gaseous Fuels     242
Liquid Fuels     244
Solid Fuels     248
Biofuels from Synthesis Gas     249
Uses     250
A Biorefinery     251
Bioconversion     252
Thermal Conversion     254
Greenhouse Gas Production     257
Other Aspects     257
The Future     259
Fuels from Crops     265
Energy Crops     266
Short Rotation Coppice     267
Miscanthus     267
Reed Canary Grass     268
Cordgrass     268
Switchgrass     268
Reed Plants     269
Jerusalem Artichoke     269
Sorghum     269
Hemp     270
Processes     270
Direct Combustion     270
Gasification     272
Pyrolysis     274
Anaerobic Digestion     275
Ethanol     278
Ethanol Production     279
Other Alcohols     281
Methanol     281
Propanol and Butanol     282
Biodiesel     282
Feedstocks for Biodiesel     283
Transesterification (Alcoholysis)     284
Catalytic Transesterification     284
Noncatalytic Supercritical Methanol Transesterification     286
Effect of Reaction Parameters on Conversion Yield     287
Properties     288
Technical Standards     289
Uses     289
Hydrocarbons     290
Fuels from Wood     297
History     297
Composition and Properties     301
Energy from Wood     304
Fuels From Wood     306
Gaseous Fuels     307
Liquid Fuels     310
Solid Fuels     313
Fuels from Domestic and Industrial Waste     323
Industrial and Domestic Waste     325
Effects of Waste     326
Fuels from Waste Incineration     328
Gaseous Fuels     332
Chemistry     333
Reactors     333
Liquid Fuels     334
Hydrocarbon Fuels     335
Biodiesel     336
Ethanol     338
Other Alcohols     339
Solid Fuels     340
Briquette Manufacture     341
Bagasse Briquettes     342
Sawdust Briquettes     342
Urban Waste Briquettes     342
The Future     342
Landfill Gas     345
Landfill Classification      346
Landfill Gas     347
Biogas and Other Gases     351
Biogas     351
Renewable Natural Gas     352
Gober Gas     352
Formation of Landfill Gas     353
Organic Reactions     355
Inorganic Reactions     356
Landfill Leachate     356
Landfill Gas Monitoring     357
Landfill Mining     358
Gas Migration     359
Diffusion (Uniform Concentration     360
Pressure     360
Permeability     360
Other Factors Affecting Gas Migration     361
Bioreactors     362
Gasification of Landfill Waste     363
Power Generation     364
Definition and Properties of Fuels and Feedstocks from Different Sources     367
Comparison of the Properties of Gaseous Fuels from Different Sources     377
Comparison of the Properties of Liquid Fuels from Different Sources     381
Comparison of the Properties of Solid Fuels from Different Sources     389
Glossary     393
Index     403