Pharma-Ecology: The Occurrence and Fate of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in the Environment Book

Preface     ix
Usage of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products for Different Therapeutic End Points in Relation to Environment     1
Personal Care Products     8
Fragrances and Musks     9
Detergents     12
Disinfectants     15
Pharmaceutical Compounds     16
Antihypertensive and Cardiovascular Medications     16
Anxiolytic Sedatives, Hypnotics, and Antipsychotics     21
Analgesics and Anti-inflammatory Drugs     28
Antimicrobial Compounds     32
Gastrointestinal Drugs     57
Antidiabetic Drugs     59
Diuretics and Electrolytes     60
Thyroid System Medication     62
Respiratory Drugs     63
Oral Contraceptive and Reproductive Therapeutics     65
Biophosphonates and Other Skeletal Ailment Drugs     70
Steroids     72
Hematologic Drugs     74
Nutritional Drugs     75
Triptans     76
Anesthetics     76
Antineoplast and Immunosuppressants     77
Conclusion     78
Detection and Occurrence of PPCPs in the Environment     81
Detection of PPCPs in the Environment     83
Detection Using Instrumentation     87
Detection Using Bioassays     87
Occurrence of PPCPs in Various Environments     92
Aquatic Systems     93
Occurrence of PPCPs in Sediments     109
Occurrence of PPCPs in Soil     109
Aerial Environments     112
Excretion as a Driver of Pharmaceutical Occurrence in the Environment     112
Ecopharmacokinetics and Ecopharmacodynamics     117
Overview of Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics     118
Sorption and Bioavailability of PPCPs in the Environment     127
Compound Half-life and Clearance     131
Degradation of PPCPs in the Environment     135
Degradation of Antibiotics in the Environment     136
Degradation of Analgesics and Anti-inflammatory Drugs     142
Degradation of Estrogens and Other Reproductive Hormones in the Environment     144
Degradation of Other Important Pharmaceuticals     147
Degradation of Surfactants     149
Role of Physicochemical Factors in the Fate of PPCPs in the Environment     149
Molecular Size as an Attribute to Absorption and Persistence     150
Solubility and Hydrolysis     150
Effects of Chemical Dissociation, Partitioning, and Lipophilicity on PPCP Degradability     152
Effects of Moisture and Oxygen in the Fate of PPCPs in the Environment     155
Effects of Temperature in PPCP Dynamics and Degradation in the Environment     155
Other Factors That Determine PPCP Fate and Persistence in the Environment     157
Conclusion     161
Ecotoxicity of PPCPs     163
Conventional Assessment of the Risk     168
Ecological Impact of PPCPs on Microorganisms and Microbial Processes     171
Antibiotic Resistance     171
Biogeochemical Perturbations     179
Effects of PPCPs on Invertebrates     180
Ecotoxicity of PPCPs on Aquatic Organisms     183
Endocrine Disrupters in the Aquatic System     185
Effects of Antibiotic Resistance to Aquatic Organisms     188
Ecotoxicological Effects of Cosmetics on Aquatic Organisms     189
Ecotoxicity of Other PPCPs in Aquatic Organisms     190
Ecotoxicity of PPCPs on Terrestrial Wildlife     192
Livestock and Human Health     196
Clinical Antibiotic Resistance Cases     197
Allergic Reactions Related to PPCPs     203
Endocrine Disruption in Humans and Livestock     203
Association Between PPCPs in the Environment and Some Cancers     204
Other PPCPs of Major Concern to Humans and Livestock in the Environment     206
Ecotoxicity of PPCPs on Vegetation     207
General Considerations in Long-Term PPCP Toxicity     208
Technologies for Removing PPCPs     211
Conventional Treatment Systems     214
Primary Treatment     214
Secondary Treatment     215
Advanced Treatment Processes     218
Advanced Filtration Systems     218
Oxidation Processes     230
Ultraviolet Treatment     234
Electrolysis     234
Advanced Oxidation Processes     236
Future Needs     239
Improving Assessment of the Risks from PPCPs in the Environment     241
Effect of Mixtures     241
Effects of Chronic Exposure to Low PPCP Doses     242
Formulation and Regimen Design Affecting PPCP Bioavailability, Excretion, and Sorption     243
Use of Quantitative Structural Activity Relationships in Ecotoxicology     243
Use of Genomics in Bioassay Studies     244
Social Responsibility, Legislation, and Policy     246
Need to Revisit the Drug Approval and Advertising Process     248
Use of Prescription Records for Mapping PPCPs      250
References     251
Index     295