Gender Equality: Striving for Justice in an Unequal World Book

Acknowledgements     xiii
Preface     xv
Overview     xix
After Beijing: Uneven progress in an unequal world     1
The persistence of gender inequalities     2
The disabling policy environment     8
The sobering assessments of 2000     8
The UNRISD report     9
Bringing gender back in     11
Current policy agendas: Implications for gender equality     12
Forging links between economic policy and gender equality     15
Women's movements: Walking a tightrope to change     18
Macroeconomics, well-being and gender equality     21
Liberalization and deregulation: The route to gender equality?     25
Liberalization and globalization     25
Macroeconomic effects of globalization     28
Liberalization, labour markets and women's gains: A mixed picture     35
Liberalized trade and investment flows     35
Slow growth and economic volatility effects     41
Fiscal retrenchment     43
Global economic integration and women's participation in decision making     47
Consolidating women's gains: The need for a broader policy agenda     49
Indicators and measurement     50
Progress in closing gender gaps in well-being     51
Macroeconomic strategies for gender-equitable development     56
Women, work and social policy     63
The feminization and informalization of labour     67
North and South: Converging and competing?     68
Women's employment in OECD countries: Continuity and change     69
Women's employment in Eastern and Central Europe: Crisis and decline     71
Middle East and North Africa: Stalled industrialization and diversification     74
The informal economy     76
Organizations of informal workers     85
The changing terms of rural living     89
The implications of liberalization for rural poverty     90
The gendered impacts of economic reform     93
Detecting change in gender relations     106
Cross-border migration of workers     109
International migratory flows     110
Changing "migration regimes": Who gets in?     110
Women workers' modes of entry     113
Stratified labour markets     118
Migrant health workers     122
The search for a new social policy agenda     125
Gender: The "silent term"     128
Gender ordering/stratification and institutional change     129
Anti-poverty programmes: "Targeting" women but gender-blind?     138
Women in politics and public life     143
Women in public office: A rising tide     147
Towards a "critical mass"     149
Why are women absent?     149
Electoral systems and women's entry     151
Affirmative action: Boosting the numbers     152
The myth of voter hostility     155
Women's presence and performance in public office     155
Women's expanding and changing political roles     157
The mobilization of women in and by political parties     158
Assessing women's political effectiveness     162
Women mobilizing to reshape democracy     167
Women's movements and feminist politics     167
Women's engagement in democratization     168
Women's reaction to faith-based and ethnic movements     171
Transnational women's mobilization     174
Gender and "good governance"     181
The contemporary governance reform agenda     181
Gender equality and governance reform     182
Gender and accountability     183
Civil service reforms     183
Gender and the rule of law agenda      186
Dedicated institutions to represent women's needs     190
Decentralization and gender equality     193
The prevalence of women in local government     194
Country experiences of affirmative action     195
Resistance from traditional authorities     196
Gender-sensitive institutional innovations in local government     199
Enabling women's voices to be heard     199
Women's impact on local decision making     201
Political representation: The promise for women     202
Gender, armed conflict and the search for peace     205
The impacts of conflict on women     209
Warfare and women     210
Women as direct victims of war     212
Women as military participants     218
War's effects on women as social actors     219
Women and the search for peace     224
After conflict: Women, peace building and development     233
The continuation of violence and sexual assault     233
The reduction of "space" and life choices     234
Tensions between women     235
Potential for positive change: Opportunities glimpsed and real     235
The gender-weighted peace industry      236
Macroeconomic and macrosocial policies: Implications for women     236
Agriculture and land reform     238
Urban employment     240
Health, welfare and education     242
Women's rights and postwar political change     243
Seeking justice for war rape and sexual violence     245
Postwar truth processes, reconciliation, and women's stories     248
Civil and political participation     250
Concluding remarks     255
Economic liberalization     255
Embedding liberalism?     256
Towards a gender-equitable policy agenda     257
Background papers     261
Bibliography     265
Acronyms     297
Geographical groupings     301
Tables
Key international and regional legal instruments promoting gender equality (1990-2004)     2
Estimates of "missing women"     6
Inflation (Consumer prices, 10-year averages)     30
Trends in per capita GDP growth, average annual percentage growth (1961-2000)     30
Trends in income inequality in 73 countries, from the 1950s to the 1990s     32
Female share of paid employment in manufacturing, selected Asian economies (1991-2000)     37
Female to male manufacturing wage ratios (in percentages), selected countries (1990-1999)     40
Social expenditure per capita in constant international prices, five-year averages (1975-1999)     45
Changes in indicators of gender equality in well-being (1970-1999)     55
Women's average annual income/earnings as a percentage of men's, by age groups for full-time, full-year workers in the mid to late 1990s     72
Activity rates and female/male mean wage ratio, Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland     73
Unemployment rates, selected MENA countries, 1990s     75
Informal employment in non-agricultural employment, by sex, different regions and selected countries (1994-2000)     77
Wage and self-employment in the non-agricultural informal sector by sex, different regions and selected countries (1994-2000)     78
Economically active population in agriculture, agricultural value added and agricultural exports, regional averages and some country examples (1980-2000)     91
Poverty and indigence rates in Latin America, percentage of population (1980-2002)     92
Women's employment in high-value agricultural export production     98
Form of acquisition of land ownership by gender (in percentages)     103
Percentage of total admissions of immigrants in the family, humanitarian and economic categories who are females (1990-2000)     113
Beneficiaries of family reunification in the European Union     114
Number of female migrant workers by sending country and proportion of females in total outflows (1979-1996)     116
Occupation, immigration status, country of origin, and number of unskilled female migrant workers by receiving country and percentage of total number in the early 2000s     117
Participation rate and unemployment rate of nationals and foreigners by sex in selected OECD countries, 2001-2002 average     120
Countries achieving a "critical mass" (30 per cent and over) of women in national assemblies, April 2004     148
Figures
Ratio of female to male gross enrolment rates in low-income countries and lower-middle-income countries (1980-2000)     4
Female economic activity rates, regional averages (1980-latest available year)     5
Women's presence in national parliaments, regional averages (1987-2004)     5
Juvenile sex ratios and fertility rates in China and India (early 1980s-2000s)     7
Sum of inward and outward FDI as a percentage of gross fixed capital formation (1970-2002)     29
Women wage employment in non-agricultural sector as percentage of total non-agricultural employees (1990-2002)     53
Female economic activity rates in the Middle East and North Africa and transitional countries (1980-latest available year)     68
Part-time employment rates in OECD countries, as percentage of total employment (2001)      70
Agricultural value added, annual percentage growth (1970-2001)     92
Sub-Saharan African share of world agricultural trade (1961-2002)     93
Female rural activity rates, Latin American (1980-2000)     94
Categories of admission for immigrants admitted to Canada (1990-2000)     111
Categories of admission for immigrants admitted to the United States (1990-2000)     112
Percentages in the labour force of foreign-born and native-born population age 25-64, by sex, Canada (1996) and the United States (2000)     119
Share of official development assistance (ODA) to developing countries for social infrastructure and services (1975-2002)     126
World Bank's share of total ODA for social infrastructure and services, selected regions (1975-2002)     127
Women in national parliaments and female net secondary education enrolment, 2001     150
Women in national parliaments and female gross tertiary education enrolment, 2001     150
Women in national parliaments and female economic activity rate, 2001     151
Women's presence in national parliaments: change in averages by level of income (1987-2004)     151
Women in national parliaments, averages by level of income, electoral system and existence of quotas, 2004     153
Women in ministerial and subministerial positions, and national parliaments, regional averages, 1998      157
Ministerial areas assigned to women in the world, by level of income, 1998     158
National Board of the Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT) by sex of members, Brazil (1981-1999)     160
Legality of abortion by country's level of income, 2001     164
Women in local government and national parliaments, 2004     194
Gender policy preference and investment in villages with reserved and unreserved leader position for women. Evidence from West Bengal and Rajasthan, India     201
Gender equality in education, economic activity and political participation, 2001     202
Type of conflicts in the world (1946-2003)     210
Estimated age and sex distribution of deaths due to conflicts in the year 2000     213
Gender composition of Frente Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional (FMLN) in El Salvador, membership by demobilization category     220
Gender composition of Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG) in Guatemala, by demobilization category     220
Main countries of origin with the greatest population of concern to UNHCR, by sex (end 2003)     223
Main countries of origin with the greatest number of refugees, by sex (end 2003)     223
Pre and postconflict proportion of women in national parliaments     252
Boxes
Sexual and reproductive health are human rights     16
High tech and high heels in the global economy: Women, work and pink-collar identities     36
Women outside the labour market in Hungary     74
Kayaye in Ghana: The poor exploiting the very poor     80
Stratified markets in south India entrench insecurity     81
Subcontracting and pricing in clothing, the Philippines     82
Homeworkers and the self-employed     83
Straddling strategies by teachers and health workers in the South West Province of Cameroon     84
"Property rights" are no panacea for the informal economy     87
Fruit temporeras in Chile     99
Diversification and changing household structures in India     101
"Illegal", "undocumented", "irregular": A note on terminology     110
How commuters from the margins help the elite live in clover     121
Women health workers on the ward: A snapshot from Tanzania     132
Extending coverage to domestic workers     136
Gender implications of variations in electoral systems     152
Legal challenges to quota law violations in Argentina     154
Chile: A case of votes rather than convictions     162
Women in politics: What difference does it make? An empirical assessment of the case of abortion laws     164
Women's struggle over citizenship rights leads to improved representation     187
Ousting a Rajasthani women leader     197
Data on women affected by armed conflict     211
Rape as a tool of Somali clan conflict     216
Abducted girl mothers and babies     217
The end of conflict in Cambodia     228
Domestic violence increases after war     234
Women excluded from postwar planning     237
Women losing land: Postwar land reform in Africa and Latin America     240
UN Security Council Resolution 1325     244
Talking about sexual assault and rape     245
Prosecuting sexual crimes in Sierra Leone's UN Special Court     247
Characteristics and purposes of Truth Commissions     249