ESA: ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT Book

	Acknowledgments	xi
	About the Author	xiii
	Foreword	xv
1.0	Executive Summary	1
1.1	Overview	1
1.2	Purposes of the Endangered Species Act	2
1.3	Basic Structure of the ESA	3
2.0	Listing and Critical Habitat Designation	5
2.1	Overview	5
2.2	What Is a Species?	6
2.2.1	Distinct Population Segments (DPSs)	8
2.3	Listing Criteria	11
2.3.1	"Best Scientific and Commercial Data Available"	13
2.4	Candidate Species	15
2.5	The Petition Process	16
2.5.1	The 90-Day Finding	18
2.5.2	12-Month Finding	19
2.6	Rulemaking Procedures Necessary to List a Species	20
2.6.1	Proposed Listing Contents	21
2.6.2	Notice and Comment	22
2.6.3	The Final Rule	23
2.7	Emergency Listings	24
2.8	Critical Habitat	26
2.8.1	Prudent and Determinable	27
2.8.2	Critical Habitat Designation and Revision	28
3.0	Conservation: Section 7(a)(1) and Recovery Planning	29
3.1	Overview	29
3.2	Section 7(a)(1) Conservation Obligations	31
3.2.1	Section 7(a)(1) Obligations: Mandatory or Voluntary?	32
3.3	Recovery Plans	34
3.3.1	Discretion of FWS/NMFS in Recovery Plan Preparation and Content	36
3.3.2	Federal Agency Discretion in Implementing Recovery Plans	36
4.0	Prohibited Acts and Penalties (ESA Sections 9 and 11)	39
4.1	Overview	39
4.1.1	Conduct Prohibited	40
4.1.2	Threatened Species and Section 4(d) Rules	42
4.1.3	Plants	43
4.1.4	Prohibited "Take" and the "Harm" Debate	44
4.1.4.1	Palila I and II: Habitat Modification May Result in Prohibited Harm	45
4.1.4.2	Sweet Home: "Harm" Definition Upheld	46
4.1.4.3	Causation: The New Era of Section 9 Litigation	49
4.1.4.4	Injury	52
4.2	Section 11 Penalties: Overview	54
4.2.1	Monetary Penalties, Imprisonment, Forfeiture	54
4.2.2	Scienter	55
4.2.3	Bodily Harm Defense	57
5.0	Section 7 Consultation	59
5.1	Overview	59
5.2	Agency "Action"	61
5.2.1	"Incremental Step" Consultation	63
5.2.2	The Role of Private "Applicants"	64
5.3	Effects of the Action	67
5.3.1	The Environmental Baseline	68
5.3.2	Direct and Indirect Effects	69
5.3.3	Interrelated and Interdependent Activities	70
5.4	The Consultation Process	71
5.4.1	Step One: Screening the "Action"	72
5.4.1.1	Species or Critical Habitat Present in Action Area?	72
5.4.1.2	"Major Construction Activity"?	73
5.4.1.3	"May Affect"?	73
5.4.2	Step Two: Biological Assessment Preparation or Informal Consultation	74
5.4.2.1	Informal Consultation	74
5.4.2.2	Biological Assessments	75
5.4.3	Step Three: Formal Consultation	76
5.4.3.1	Biological Opinion	77
5.4.3.2	Jeopardy, Adverse Modification, and Reasonable and Prudent Alternatives	78
5.4.3.3	Incidental Take Statements	80
5.4.4	Reinitiation of Consultation	82
5.5	Cumulative Effects	82
5.6	Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources	83
5.6.1	Not All Irreversible or Irretrievable Commitments of Resources Are Prohibited	84
5.7	Conferencing	86
6.0	Incidental Take Permits and Other Allowable Take	87
6.1	Overview	87
6.2	Incidental Take Permits	88
6.3	Habitat Conservation Plans	89
6.3.1	Scope of an HCP	90
6.3.2	HCP Mitigation Requirements	91
6.3.3	No-Surprises Policy	93
6.3.4	Consultation Requirement	95
6.4	Enhancement of Survival and "Safe Harbor" Permits	96
6.5	Miscellaneous Taking Exceptions	99
6.6	Candidate Conservation Agreements with Assurances	100
7.0	The Section 7 Exemption Process	103
7.1	Overview	103
7.2	Applying for an Exemption	104
7.2.1	Who May Apply for an Exemption	104
7.2.2	When to Apply for an Exemption	105
7.2.3	Contents of the Exemption Application	105
7.2.4	Initial Secretarial Action on the Application	106
7.3	The Exemption Process: Phase I (Consideration by the Secretary)	107
7.3.1	Threshold Determinations	107
7.3.2	Hearings	108
7.3.3	The Secretary's Report	109
7.4	The Exemption Process: Phase II (The Endangered Species Committee)	110
7.4.1	The Committee	110
7.4.2	The Exemption Decision	111
7.4.3	Mitigation and Enhancement	112
7.5	Special Cases	112
8.0	State/Federal Interactions under the ESA	115
8.1	Overview	115
8.2	The ESA as a Valid Exercise of Congressional Commerce Power	117
8.2.1	Preemption of State Law	118
8.3	Section 6 Cooperative Agreements	119
8.4	1994 NMFS/FWS Policy Regarding States' Roles	120
9.0	International Application of the ESA	121
9.1	Overview	121
9.2	International Cooperation	122
9.3	International Applicability of Various ESA Provisions	123
9.3.1	Listing of Species	123
9.3.2	Designation of Critical Habitat	124
9.3.3	Section 7 Consultation	124
9.3.4	Recovery Planning	125
9.3.5	Prohibited Acts	125
9.4	Implementation of CITES and the Western Hemisphere Convention	126
9.4.1	CITES	126
9.4.2	Western Hemisphere Convention	128
10.0	Experimental Populations	131
10.1	Overview	131
10.2	Experimental Population Establishment	132
10.2.1	Geographic Separation	133
10.2.2	Essential versus Nonessential Experimental Populations	135
10.2.2.1	Critical Habitat	135
10.2.2.2	Section 7 Consultation	136
10.2.3	Special Rules with Respect to Experimental Populations	136
11.0	Citizen Suits, Standing, and Procedure	139
11.1	Overview	139
11.2	Scope of ESA Section 11(g)	139
11.3	60-Day Notice Requirement	140
11.4	APA Review as an Alternative to an ESA Citizen Suit	143
11.5	Standing	144
11.5.1	Article III Standing	145
11.5.1.1	Prong 1: "Injury in Fact"	145
11.5.1.2	Prong 2: "Causation"	147
11.5.1.3	Prong 3: "Redressability"	148
11.5.2	Prudential Standing	149
11.6	Miscellaneous	150
	Appendices
Appendix A	Acronym List	151
Appendix B	Frequently Asked Questions	153
Appendix C	Key Cases	167
	Glossary	175
	Bibliography	189
	Index	193