Engineering Thermodynamics of Thermal Radiation: for Solar Power Utilization Book

Preface xv

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Objective and Scope of This Book 1

1.2 General Thermodynamic Definitions 5

2 Definitions and Laws of Substance 9

2.1 Equation of State 9

2.2 State Parameters of Substance 11

2.2.1 Pressure 11

2.2.2 Temperature 12

2.3 Energy of Substance 14

2.4 Energy Transfer 16

2.4.1 Work 16

2.4.2 Heat 17

2.5 Entropy of Substance 19

2.6 Exergy of Substance 20

2.6.1 Traditional Exergy 20

2.6.2 Gravitational Interpretation of Exergy 23

2.6.3 Exergy Annihilation Law 28

2.6.4 Exergy Transfer During Heat and Work 31

2.7 Chemical Exergy of Substance 31

Nomenclature for Chapter 2 33

3 Definitions and Laws of Radiation 37

3.1 Radiation Source 37

3.2 Radiant Properties of Surfaces 39

3.3 Definitions of the Radiation of Surfaces 41

3.4 Planck's Law 43

3.5 Wien's Displacement Law 47

3.6 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 48

3.7 Lambert's Cosine Law 50

3.8 Kirchhoff's Law 53

Nomenclature for Chapter 3 55

4 The Laws of Thermodynamic Analysis 57

4.1 Outline of Thermodynamic Analysis 57

4.1.1 Significance of Thermodynamic Analysis 57

4.1.2 General Remarks and Definition of the Considered Systems 59

4.2 Substance and Mass Conservation 60

4.3 Energy Conservation Law 62

4.3.1 Energy Balance Equations 62

4.3.2 Components of the Energy Balance Equation 64

4.4 Entropy Growth 66

4.5 Exergy Balance Equation 68

4.5.1 Traditional Exergy Balance 68

4.5.2 Components of the Traditional Exergy Balance Equation 70

4.5.3 Exergy Balance at Varying Environment Parameters 71

4.5.4 Exergy Balance with Gravity Input 73

4.6 Process Efficiency 79

4.6.1 Carnot Efficiency 79

4.6.2 Perfection Degree of Process 84

4.6.3Specific Efficiencies 86

4.6.4 Remarks on the Efficiency of Radiation Conversion 87

4.6.5 Consumption Indices 87

4.7 Method of Reconciliation of the Measurement Data 89

Nomenclature for Chapter 4 94

5 Thermodynamic Properties of Photon Gas 97

5.1 Nature of Photon Gas 97

5.2 Temperature of Photon Gas 101

5.3 Energy of Photon Gas 105

5.4 Pressure of Photon Gas 106

5.5 Entropy of Photon Gas 112

5.6 Isentropic Process of Photon Gas 113

5.7 Exergy of Photon Gas 113

5.8 Mixing Photon Gases 116

5.9 Analogies Between Substance and Photon Gases 117

Nomenclature for Chapter 5 122

6 Exergy of Emission 125

6.1 Basic Explanations 125

6.2 Derivation of the Emission Exergy Formula 126

6.3 Analysis of the Formula of the Exergy of Emission 129

6.4 Efficiency of Radiation Processes 132

6.4.1 Radiationrto-Work Conversion 132

6.4.2 Radiation-to-Heat Conversion 136

6.4.3 Other Processes Driven by Radiation 139

6.5 Irreversibility of Radiative Heat Transfer 140

6.6 Irreversibility of Emission and Absorption of Radiation 143

6.7 Influence of Surroundings on the Radiation Exergy 146

6.7.1 Emissivity of the Environment 146

6.7.2 Configuration of Surroundings 147

6.7.3 Presence of Other Surfaces 149

6.8 "Cold" Radiation 151

6.9 Radiation Exergy at Varying Environmental Temperatures 153

6.10 Radiation of Surface of Nonuniform Temperature 160

6.10.1 Emission Exergy at Continuous Surface Temperature Distribution 160

6.10.2 Effective Temperature of a Nonisothermal Surface 161

Nomenclature for Chapter 6 165

7 Radiation Flux 167

7.1 Energy of Radiation Flux 167

7.2 Entropy of Radiation Flux 171

7.2.1 Entropy of the Monochromatic Intensity of Radiation 171

7.2.2 Entropy of Emission from a Black Surface 172

7.2.3 Entropy of Arbitrary Radiosity 173

7.3 Exergy of Radiation Flux 175

7.3.1 Arbitrary Radiation 175

7.3.2 Polarized Radiation 178

7.3.3 Nonpolarized Radiation 178

7.3.4 Nonpolarized and Uniform Radiation 179

7.3.5 Nonpolarized, Uniform Radiation in a Solid Angle 2π 179

7.3.6 Nonpolarized, Black, Uniform Radiation in a Solid Angle 2π 181

7.3.7 Nonpolarized, Black, Uniform Radiation Within a Solid Angle ω 181

7.4 Propagation of Radiation 182

7.4.1 Propagation in a Vacuum 182

7.4.2 Some Remarks on Propagation in a Real Medium 185

7.5 Radiation Exergy Exchange Between Surfaces 187

7.5.1 View Factor 187

7.5.2 Emission Exergy Exchange Between Two Black Surfaces 194

7.5.3 Exergy Exchange Between Two Gray Surfaces 196

7.6 Exergy of Solar Radiation 208

7.6.1 Significance of Solar Radiation 208

7.6.2 Possibility of Concentration of Solar Radiation 211

Nomenclature for Chapter 7 216

8 Radiation Spectra of a Surface 219

8.1 Introductory Remarks 219

8.2 Energy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface 220

8.3 Entropy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface 221

8.4 Radiation Exergy Derived from Exergy Definition 223

8.5 Exergy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface 227

8.5.1 Spectrum of a Black Surface 227

8.5.2 Spectrum of a Gray Surface 233

8.5.3 Exergetic Emissivity 235

8.6 Application of Exergetic Spectra for Exergy Exchange Calculation 239

8.7 Conclusion 243

Nomenclature for Chapter 8 244

9 Discussion of Radiation Exergy Formulae Proposed by Researchers 247

9.1 Polemic Addressees 247

9.2 What Work Represents Exergy? 248

9.3 Is Radiation Matter Heat? 250

9.4 Bejan's Discussion 254

9.5 Discussion by Wright et al. 259

9.6 Other Authors 259

9.7 Summary 261

Nomenclature for Chapter 9 262

10 Thermodynamic Analysis of Heat from the Sun 265

10.1 Introduction 265

10.2 Global Warming Effect 266

10.3 Effect of a Canopy 268

10.4 Evaluation of Solar Radiation Conversion into Heat 272

10.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Solar Cylindrical-Parabolic Cooker 279

10.5.1 Introductory Remarks 279

10.5.2 Description of the SCPC 281

10.5.3 Mathematical Model for Energy Analysis of the SCPC 282

10.5.4 Mathematical Consideration of the Exergy Analysis of an SCPC 285

10.5.5 Conclusion Regarding the Solar Cylindrical-Parabolic Cooker 300

Nomenclature for Chapter 10 300

11 Thermodynamic Analysis of a Solar Chimney Power Plant 303

11.1 Introduction 303

11.2 Description of the Plant as the Thermodynamic Problem 304

11.3 The Main Assumptions for the Simplified Mathematical Model of the SCPP 308

11.4 Energy Analysis 310

11.5 Exergy Analysis 321

11.6 Exergy Analysis Using the Mechanical Exergy Component for a Substance 325

11.7 Trends of Response for the Varying Input Parameters 327

Nomenclature for Chapter 11 330

12 Thermodynamic Analysis of Photosynthesis 333

12.1 Objectives of the Chapter 333

12.2 Simplified Description of Photosynthesis 334

12.3 Some Earlier Work About Photosynthesis 335

12.4 Assumptions Defining the Simplified Mathematical Model of Photosynthesis 336

12.5 Properties of Substance 339

12.5.1 Energy of Substance 339

12.5.2 Entropy of Substance 340

12.5.3 Exergy of Substance 340

12.6 Radiation Properties 341

12.6.1 Energy of Radiation 341

12.6.2 Entropy of Radiation 342

12.6.3 Exergy of Radiation 343

12.7 Balances Equations 344

12.7.1 Mass Conservation Equations 344

12.7.2 Energy Equation 345

12.7.3 Entropy Equation 346

12.7.4 Exergy Equations 346

12.8 Perfection Degrees of Photosynthesis 347

12.9 Some Aspects Inspired by the Example Calculations 349

12.9.1 Trends Responsive to Varying Input Parameters 349

12.9.2 Relation Between the Environment Temperature, Leaf Temperature, and Rate of Sugar Generation 352

12.9.3 Ratio of Vaporized Water and Assimilated Carbon Dioxide Rates 353

12.9.4 Exergy Losses in the Component Processes of Photosynthesis 354

12.9.5 Increased Carbon Dioxide Concentration in the Leaf Surroundings 356

12.9.6 Remarks on the Photosynthesis Degree of Perfection 357

12.10 Concluding Remarks 358

Nomenclature for Chapter 12 362

13 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Photovoltaic 365

13.1 Significance of the Photovoltaic 365

13.2 General Description of the Photovoltaic 366

13.3 Simplified Thermodynamic Analysis of a Solar Cell 367

Nomenclature for Chapter 13 371

References 373

Appendix 379

A.l Prefixes to Derive Names of Secondary Units 379

A.2 Typical Constant Values for Radiation and Substance 379

A.3 Application of Mathematics to Some Thermodynamic Relations 380

A.4 Review of Some Radiation Energy Variables 382

A.5 Review of Some Radiation Entropy Variables 384

A.6 Review of Some Radiation Exergy Variables 386

A.7 Exergy of Liquid Water 387

Index 389