Energizing Our Future: Rational Choices for the 21st Century Book

Preface     xiii
Acknowledgment     xvii
Introduction: Rising Energy Costs     xix
A Trilogy of Popular Misconceptions     1
Global Warming     3
Conventional Wisdom     4
CO[subscript 2] and the Carbon Cycle     7
The Greenhouse Effect     10
Recent Climate Changes     11
Carbon Dioxide     13
Other Global Warming "Forcing Agents"     15
Water Vapor     15
Methane     20
Nitrous Oxide     21
Ozone     22
Sulfur     24
Other Pollutants     24
Carbon-Based and Other Particulates     26
Solar Influences-Insolation and Irradiance     26
Global Net Primary Productivity (NPP)     30
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change     32
IPCC Report Conclusions     34
Footnote on the IPCC     35
Dealing with Global Warming     36
Can Anything Be Done?     37
The Kyoto Protocol     38
The Hydrogen Economy (Aka, the Impossible Dream)     41
The Promise of Hydrogen     42
The Scale of the Task-Why Replace Gasoline?     42
Replacing Fuels Other than Gasoline     43
Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel     44
Hydrogen Production Methods     44
Water-Splitting Processes-Overview     47
Hydrogen from Electrolysis     48
Electrolytic Hydrogen Production     49
Oxygen By-products     49
Energy Consumption and Electrolyzer Efficiency     50
Electrolysis: Emissions     53
Electrolysis: Economics     53
Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons     54
Thermal and Catalytic Reforming from Natural Gas     54
Catalytic Thermochemical Reforming     55
Scaling Issues-Up and Down     56
Combustion CO[subscript 2] from Reforming     57
Hydrogen Production Costs     59
Natural Gas Reserves and Hydrogen     61
Natural Gas and Hydrogen Manufacture     62
Other Hydrogen Production Methods     62
Photoelectrolysis     63
Biomass Conversion to Hydrogen     64
Hydrogen Production-Summary     65
Safety Considerations     66
Transporting and Distributing Hydrogen     67
Compressing Hydrogen     68
Liquid Hydrogen     69
Pipelining Hydrogen     70
Pipeline Leakage Losses     73
Road Tanker Transportation of Hydrogen     73
Hydrogen Leakage Losses     74
Transportation and Distribution Alternatives     75
Distributed Manufacturing of Hydrogen     75
By Electrolysis     75
By Reforming     76
Hydrogen Reformer Reliability     76
Hydrogen Reformer Safety     76
Onboard Manufacture of Hydrogen     77
Hydrogen Storage     77
Hydrogen Storage Approaches     78
Compressed Hydrogen Gas: Containment Technologies for 5000-10,000 psig     78
Liquid Hydrogen: Cryogenic Containment     80
Storage in Metals and Metal Hydrides     84
Background on Metal Hydrides     86
Complex Hydrides     89
Catalyzed Hydrogen Adsorption and/or Desorption     91
Feasibility of Metal Hydrides as Storage Media     92
Hydrogen Adsorption/Desorption: "Chemical Hydrides"     92
Hydride Slurries for Hydrogen Storage and Transportation     93
Possible Nonmetal Hydrides/Hydrogen Carriers     95
Hydrocarbons via Partial Dehydrogenation     96
Carbon-Based Adsorption Systems      97
Graphite     97
Graphitic Nanotubes     98
Zeolites     99
Novel Hydrogen Storage Methods     99
Hydrogen Carriers     101
Ammonia     101
Methanol     103
Hydrogen Storage and DOE Criteria     103
Storage Implications for Light-Duty Vehicles     104
Hydrogen Storage with No Gravimetric or Volumetric Capacity Constraints     112
Hydrogen Storage Assessment     112
Hydrogen Safety     114
Some Additional Safety Issues     115
Summary of Hydrogen Issues     116
Nuclear Energy and the Plutonium Economy     117
The Influence of Nuclear Energy     117
Evolution of Reactor Designs     122
Generation IV Reactors     123
Fuel Recycling and Mixed Oxide Fuel     125
Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) Use in Light-Water Reactors     125
Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) Production and Processing     126
Fast-Breeder Reactors     127
Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)     128
Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)     128
Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)     129
Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)     131
Very High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR)     133
Radioactive Waste Disposal     134
Nuclear Facility Decommissioning     137
Decommissioning Examples     139
Transmutation of Nuclear Wastes     140
Uranium Supply Concerns     142
Supply Projections     146
Uranium from Seawater     150
Uncertainty about Safe and Sustainable Reactor Technology     151
The Problem in Ontario, Canada     152
Fusion Power     153
The Future is Dimming on Nuclear Power     153
Energy Options for the Future     155
Conventional Oil and Oil Reserves     157
Oil Reserves     158
Conventional Natural Gas     164
"Unconventional" Oil     167
"Unconventional" Gas     168
Coal-Bed Methane (CBM)     169
"Tight" Gas     170
Stranded or Orphaned Gas     170
A Short (Age) Summary     171
Who Really Sets Oil Prices?     171
Future Supply, Demand, and Pricing     172
Oil     172
Natural Gas and Synthetics     175
Coal and Bituminous Reserves     178
Coal     179
The Lurgi Process (Coal to Syngas or High BTU Fuel Gas)     182
The Hygas Process (Coal to SNG)     183
The Bi-Gas Process (Coal to SNG)     183
The CO[subscript 2] Acceptor Process     183
Other Coal Processes     186
Underground Processing of Coal     186
Other Important Alternative Energy Sources     187
Municipal Waste     188
Biomass and Ethanol     189
Current Availability     189
Biomass Conversion Technologies     191
Prepreparation     191
Conversion     191
Enzymatic Saccharification of Cellulose     192
Steam Explosion     192
Saccharification and Fermentation     192
Conversion Products and By-Products     193
Sugars     193
Value-Added Products (e.g., Ethanol, Polymers)     193
By-Products     193
Animal Feed     193
Lignin and Lignin Derivatives     194
Cellulose Derivatives     194
Other Raw Materials for Biomass     194
Large-Scale, High-Value End Products from Non-Corn Biomass Conversion     195
Chemicals from Corn     195
Available Technologies for Chemicals Production from Biomass     196
Acid Hydrolysis of Biomass Cellulose     196
Countercurrent Hydrolysis     197
Enzymatic Hydrolysis     197
Commercialization     198
Cost Implications of Biomass Use     198
Net Energy Balances     199
Manufacturing Efficiency     200
The Thermodynamics of Growing Corn     201
The Thermodynamics of Processing Corn into Ethanol     202
Ethanol Production Efficiencies     206
Corn Production in the United States     207
Federal Subsidies for Ethanol     208
Longer Term Ethanol Prospects     208
Final Ethanol Observations     209
Methanol     211
Possible Fossil Sources of Syngas     214
Methanol as an Energy Carrier     215
Methanol Manufacturing and Applications     216
Diesel and Biodiesel     219
"Clean Diesel" Fuel and Diesel Fuel Substitutes     219
The Diesel Market: The Future of Diesel Engines and Diesel Fuels     219
Diesel Engine Emissions     222
Biodiesel     223
What is Biodiesel?     224
Advantages of Biodiesel     227
Disadvantages of Biodiesel      233
Oxidative and Hydrolytic Stability     234
Use in Diesel Hybrids     236
Alternatives to Vegetable Oil-Based Biodiesel for Diesel Substitution     236
Other Alcohols in Petroleum Diesel     236
Other Oxygenated Additives in Petroleum Diesel     237
Gas-to-Liquid (GTL) or Biomass-to-Liquid (BTL) Products as Diesel Substitutes     238
Diesel Fuels and Fuel Substitutes-Summary and Discussion     241
Diesel Fuel Conclusions     243
Solar Energy and Photovoltaics     245
Solar Radiation     245
Scattered, Beam, and Albedo Radiation     246
Solar Insolation     247
Direct Solar Energy     248
Passive and Active Solar Heating     248
Solar Photovoltaic Systems     250
General Operation of PV Cells     251
PV Types     253
Amorphous Silicon     253
Single-Crystalline Silicon     254
Polycrystalline Silicon     255
Polycrystalline Thin Films     255
Polycrystalline Thin-Film Materials     255
Multijunction PV Cells     257
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells     257
Organic Solar Cells (OSC)      258
Grid-Connected Solar Energy     259
PV Solar Energy Prices     259
PV Manufacturing Giants     260
Future Outlook     261
Fuel Cells for Stationary and Mobile Use     263
Fuel Cell Principles     264
Types of Fuel Cell     264
The Importance of FC Operating Temperatures     265
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane/Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)     266
Regenerative PEM Cells     269
The Direct Methanol Fuel Cell     269
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs)     271
Hybrid Power Systems Incorporating SOFCs     272
Other Important Fuel Cells     273
The Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)     273
The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)     273
The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)     273
Fuels for Fuel Cells     274
Hydrogen-A Bad Choice for Fuel Cells     274
Real-World Fuel Cell Efficiencies     276
User Expectations     278
Onboard Fuel Storage Requirements     279
Realistic DOE Objectives     280
Current Status     281
FAQ on Energy and Hydrogen     285
Introduction     285
Questions on Basic Facts     285
Terms and Definitions     325
Selected Terms and Conditions Courtsy H.S.D.Q.E.     325
Index     373