Design and Control of Structure of Advanced Carbon Materials for Enhanced Performance Book

	Dedication	v
	Contents	vii
	List of Participants	xvii
	Preface	xix
Part 1	Structure and Properties
	Polymorphism in Carbons and Parent Materials
1.	Introduction	3
2.	The Crystalline Forms	4
2.1.	Chemical Bonds and Electronic Structures	4
2.2.	Thermodynamic Stability and Associated Phase Diagram	6
2.3.	Theoretical Approaches and New Predicted Phases	8
3.	Real and Virtual Forms Of Carbons	9
3.1.	Structures with a Fixed Coordination Number	9
3.2.	Structures on Curved Surfaces	12
3.3.	Exotic Structures with Variable Coordination Numbers	16
4.	Non-Crystalline Carbons	19
4.1.	Classification of Non-Crystalline Carbons	20
4.2.	Morphologies of Non Crystalline-Carbons	21
5.	Parent Materials and "Alloys"	22
5.1.	Topological Classification	22
5.2.	Theoretical Predictions, Synthetic Ways and Physical Characterizations	23
6.	Conclusion	25
7.	References	26
	Theory and Modelling of Carbon
1.	Introduction	29
2.	Models of Carbon	32
2.1.	Point Defects in Carbon Phases	32
2.2.	Fullerenes	36
3.	Conclusions	37
4.	Acknowledgements and References	37
	Characterisation of Carbon Structure
1.	Introduction	43
2.	Paracrystalline Structure of Graphitic Carbons	44
2.1.	TEM Lattice-Fringes And Layer Size Measurement	45
2.2.	X-Ray Diffraction From Paracrystalline Structure	46
3.	Texture of Graphitic Carbons	49
3.1.	Optical Texture (Example of Pyrocarbon)	49
3.2.	Preferred Orientation as Measured By TEM	52
3.3.	SEM Fracture Surface Examination (Fibres Texture And Flaws)	54
4.	The Graphitization Process	55
4.1.	Graphitization is a 3D-Ordering of Layers	56
4.2.	Measurement of P[subscript 1] - The Degree of Graphitization	57
5.	Conclusions	62
6.	References	63
	Thermal and Electrical Properties of Carbons Relationship to Structure
1.	Introduction	65
2.	Electrical Transport	66
2.1.	Some Characteristic Lengths	66
2.2.	Diffusive and Ballistic Motion	68
2.3.	Zero-Field Electrical Resistivity	68
2.4.	Magnetoresistance	69
2.5.	General Trends	70
3.	Thermal Conductivity	75
3.1.	Conduction Mechanisms	75
3.2.	Lattice Conduction	76
3.3.	Relation Between K and [rho]	81
3.4.	Effect of Intercalation	82
4.	Concluding Remarks	82
5.	References	82
	Surface Properties of Carbons for Advanced Carbon-Based Composites
1.	Introduction	85
2.	Principle of Composite Materials	86
2.1.	Strength of Composite	86
2.2.	Interface in Composite	88
3.	Surface Properties of Carbon Fibres	89
3.1.	Physical Properties	90
3.2.	Surface Chemistry	91
4.	Surface Treatment of Carbon Fibres	98
4.1.	Gas Phase Oxidation	99
4.2.	Liquid Phase Oxidation	99
4.3.	Anodic Etching	100
5.	Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers	102
5.1.	Polymer Matrix	102
5.2.	Interfacial Bond	102
5.3.	Effect of Surface Properties of Carbon Fibres on the Characteristics of Composites	107
5.4.	Application of Carbon-Fibre Reinforced Polymers	110
6.	Carbon-Carbon Composites	110
6.1.	Principle of Brittle Matrix Composites	111
6.2.	Interfacial Interaction in C/C Composites	112
6.3.	Protection Against Oxidation	114
6.4.	Applications of C/C Composites	119
7.	Carbon Composites With Other Matrices	119
8.	References	121
Part 2	Processing
	Pitch Precursor-Origin and Chemical Constitution
1.	Introduction	125
2.	General Features of Pitches	125
3.	Types of Pitches	126
3.1.	Primary Pitches	126
3.2.	Secondary Pitches	129
4.	Pitch Modification	129
4.1.	Additives	130
4.2.	Blending	130
4.3.	Air Blowing	131
4.4.	Solvent Extraction	132
5.	References	132
	The Thermal Processing and Rheological Behaviour of Pitch
1.	Introduction	135
2.	Thermal Treatment and Composition	135
3.	Rheological Behaviour of Pitch	141
4.	Changes Due to Pyrolysis	143
5.	The Diagram and Coking	148
6.	Conclusions	149
7.	References	149
	Mesophase Precursors for Advanced Carbon Fibers: Pitches, Stabilization and Carbonization
1.	Introduction	151
2.	Pitches for High Performance Carbon Fibers	151
2.1.	General	151
2.2.	A Paradox	154
2.3.	Pitches via Solvent Extraction	154
2.4.	"Polymeric" Pitch	155
2.5.	Solvated Mesophase Pitch	156
3.	Stabilization and Carbonization	157
4.	References	160
	Carbon Fiber Processing and Structure/Property Relations
1.	Introduction	163
2.	PAN-Based Carbon Fiber Processing	163
2.1.	PAN Fiber Spinning	164
2.2.	PAN Fiber Stabilization	164
2.3.	PAN Fiber Carbonization	165
3.	Structure of PAN-Based Carbon Fibers	165
4.	Pitch-Based Carbon Fiber Processing	167
4.1.	Pitch Fiber Spinning	168
4.2.	Pitch Fiber Stabilization	173
4.3.	Pitch Fiber Carbonization	174
5.	Structure Of Pitch-Based Carbon Fibers	174
6.	Structure/Property Relations For Carbon Fibers	175
7.	Conclusions	178
8.	References	179
	Carbon-Carbon Composites: Relating Processing to Structure and Properties
1.	Introduction	183
2.	Applications	184
2.1.	Friction	184
2.2.	Materials Processing	184
2.3.	Thermomechanical Applications	185
3.	Overview Of Processing	185
3.1.	Fibre Type & Composite Architecture	186
3.2.	Matrix Type And Preform Densification Methods	187
3.3.	Upgrading	190
3.4.	Current Issues	190
4.	Design And Control Of Microstructure	191
4.1.	Matrix Texture	192
4.2.	Interfaces And Matrix Shrinkage Cracks	193
4.3.	Densification	196
4.4.	Effects Of Graphitisation	198
5.	Thermal And Mechanical Properties	199
5.1.	Thermal Properties	199
5.2.	Mechanical Properties	200
6.	Conclusion	202
7.	References	203
	Preparation and Structure of Carbon Fibres and Carbon Nanotubes from the Vapour Phase: From Fibres To Nanotubes
1.	Introduction	207
2.	Preparation of VGCFs and PCNTs	209
3.	Structure of VGCFs and PCNTs	211
4.	Multi- and Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	214
5.	Conclusion	215
6.	References	216
	Manufacture of Bulk Carbon and Graphite Materials
1.	Introduction	217
2.	General Procedure	217
2.1.	Raw Materials	219
2.2.	Binders	219
2.3.	Mixing	220
2.4.	Shaping	221
2.5.	Baking	222
2.6.	Graphitizing	223
2.7.	Special Treatments	224
3.	Outlook	225
4.	References	225
Part 3	Properties, Applications and New Directions
	Mechanical Properties of Carbon-Carbon Composites
1.	Introduction	229
2.	Mechanical Properties and Graphite Crystallites	229
2.1.	Young's Modulus	229
2.2.	Thermal Expansion Coefficient	230
2.3.	Effect Of Crystallite Size On Thermal Conductivity	232
2.4.	Tensile Strength	233
3.	Test Method for Shear Strength Measurement	236
4.	Some Trials to Control the Microstructure	237
4.1.	Addition of Fine Particles	237
4.2.	Surface Treatment of the Fibre	238
5.	Summary	239
6.	References	239
	High Strength, Sintered Carbons and Graphites
1.	Introduction	241
2.	Fabrication Route	242
3.	Powder Production	245
4.	Compaction	245
5.	Microstructures	248
6.	Mechanical Properties	249
7.	The Industrial Point of View	251
7.1.	Raw Materials	252
7.2.	The Market	252
7.3.	Outlook	253
8.	References	253
	Anode Performance of the Li-Ion Secondary Battery
1.	Introduction	255
2.	Features of Li-Ion Secondary Battery	258
3.	Carbon and Graphite Host Materials	260
4.	Lithium/Graphite Intercalation Compounds	261
5.	Voltage Profiles of Carbon Electrodes	264
6.	Effect of Microstructure of Carbon Anode on the Capacity	266
7.	Effect of Heteroatom-Doped Carbons	269
8.	Conclusions	273
9.	References	273
	Carbon Materials for Energy Production and Storage
1.	Introduction	277
2.	Nuclear Fusion Reactors	277
3.	Space Nuclear Power	281
4.	Transportation Technology	283
5.	Summary and Conclusions	292
6.	References	293
7.	Acknowledgments	294
	Porous Carbons for Gas Storage and Separation: Characterisation And Performance
1.	Introduction	295
2.	Characterisation--Classification Of Pore Sizes	295
3.	Characterisation--Gas Adsorption	297
3.1.	The BET Equation	299
3.2.	Micropore Volumes from the Dubinin Equations	300
4.	Characterisation - Estimation of Mesopore and Macropore Sizes	300
5.	Characterisation - Estimation of Micropore Sizes	302
6.	Performance - Introduction	304
7.	Performance - Gas Separation Using Molecular Sieve Carbons	307
8.	Performance - Microporous Carbon Membranes	309
9.	Performance - Natural Gas Storage	311
10.	Performance - Hydrogen Storage	313
11.	Conclusions	315
12.	References	315
	Carbon-Ceramic Alloys
1.	Introduction	319
2.	Alloys from Preceramic Polymers	319
3.	Mesophase Alloys	322
4.	Other Pitch-Based Alloys	327
5.	Alloys Via Pyrolytic Incorporation of Boron	332
6.	Carbon-Nitrogen Alloys	334
7.	Nano-Porous Alloys	334
8.	Summary and Conclusions	335
9.	References	336
	"Carbon Alloys"
1.	Introduction	339
2.	The Sequence to "Carbon Alloys" and Its Classification	340
3.	The Organisation and the Outline of the Project	340
4.	Concepts and Topics in Each Group	341
5.	Summary	342
	Index	345