Bionanoreactor Technologies for Life Sciences and Medicine Book

1 Introduction to Nanoreactor Technology 1

1.1 What is a Nanoreactor? 1

1.2 Examples of Nanoreactor Systems 5

1.2.1 Overview 5

1.2.2 Molecular Organic Nanoreactors 7

1.2.3 Macromolecular Nanoreactors 7

1.2.4 Micelle, Vesicles, and Nano/Micro/Mini Emulsions 15

1.2.5 Porous Macroscopic Solids 20

1.3 Conclusions 22

References 23

2 Miniemulsion Droplets as Nanoreactors 47

2.1 Different Kinds of Polymerization in the Nanoreactors 49

2.1.1 Radical Polymerization 49

2.1.2 Controlled Free-Radical Miniemulsion Polymerization 53

2.1.3 Anionic Polymerization 56

2.1.4 Cationic Polymerization 57

2.1.5 Enzymatic Polymerization 58

2.1.6 Oxidative Polymerization 58

2.1.7 Catalytic Polymerization 59

2.1.8 Polyaddition Reaction 60

2.1.9 Polycondensation Reaction 61

2.1.10 Polymerase Chain Reaction 61

2.2 Formation of Nanocapsules 62

2.2.1 Generation of Encapsulated Inorganics 62

2.2.2 Encapsulation of Hydrophobic Molecules 64

2.2.3 Direct Generation of Polymer Capsules and Hollow Particles 66

2.2.4 Encapsulation of Hydrophobic Liquids 67

2.2.5 Encapsulation of Hydrophilic Liquids by Interfacial Reaction 69

2.2.6 Encapsulation of Hydrophilic Components by Nanoprecipitation 70

2.3 Crystallization in Miniemulsion Droplets 71

2.4 Conclusion 73

References 73

3 Transport Phenomena and Chemical Reactions in Nanoscale Surfactant Networks 81

3.1 Introduction 81

3.2 Construction, Shape Transformations, and Structural Modifications of Phospholipid Nanotube-Vesicle Networks 83

3.2.1 Phospholipid Membranes and Vesicles 83

3.2.2 Self-Assembly of Vesicular Systems 84

3.2.3 Lipid Nanotubes 86

3.2.4 Nanotube-Vesicle Networks, Forced ShapeTransitions, and Structural Self-Organization 87

3.2.5 Membrane Biofunctionalization of Liposomes and Vesicle-Cell Hybrids 91

3.2.6 Internal Volume Functionalization and Compartmentalization of Nanotube-Vesicle Networks 94

3.3 Transport Phenomena in Nanotube-Vesicle Networks 96

3.3.1 Mass Transport and Mixing in Nanotube-Vesicle Networks 97

3.3.2 Transport by Diffusion 99

3.3.3 Tension-Controlled (Marangoni) Lipid Flow and Intratubular Liquid Flow in Nanotubes 102

3.3.4 Electrophoretic Transport 104

3.3.5 Solution Mixing-in Inflated Vesicles through a Nanotube 105

3.4 Chemical Reactions in Nanotube-Vesicle Networks 106

3.4.1 Diffusion-Controlled Reactions in Confined Spaces 107

3.4.2 Chemical Transformations in Individual Vesicles 112

3.4.3 Enzymatic Reactions in Nanotube-Vesicle Networks 114

3.4.4 Controlled Initiation of Enzymatic Reactions 115

3.4.5 Control of Enzymatic Reactions by Network Architecture 117

3.5 Summary and Outlook 122

Selected Bibliography 124

4 Ordered Mesoporous Materials 133

4.1 Introduction 133

4.2 The Mechanism of Self-Assembly of Mesoporous Materials 135

4.3 Functionalization of the Pore Walls 139

4.4 Controlling the Mesopore Diameter 140

4.5 Characterization 141

4.6 Protein Adsorption and Enzyme Activity 143

4.7 Morphogenesis of Nano- and Microparticles 147

4.8 Drug Delivery 151

4.9 Bioactive Glasses for Tissue Engineering 154

4.10 Summary 155

References 157

5 A Novel Nanoreactor for Biosensing 161

5.1 Introduction 161

5.2 Basic Design of a Nanoreactor for ROS Detection 162

5.2.1 Overall Mechanism 162

5.2.2 Chemiluminescence of Luminol 162

5.2.3 Resonance Energy Transfer Inside a Nanoreactor 162

5.2.4 A Kinetics Model of Nanoreactor Chemiluminescence and Fluorescence 166

5.3 Synthesis of a Nanoreactor 168

5.3.1 Outline of Nanoreactor Synthesis 168

5.3.2 Encapsulation of the Reactants in Liposomes 169

5.3.3 Self-Assembly of Calcium Phosphate Shells over the Liposomes and Nanoreactor Stabilization with CEPA 170

5.4 Characterization of a Synthesized Nanoreactor 171

5.4.1 Physical Feature of a Nanoreactor 171

5.4.2 Internal Structure of the Calcium Phosphate Shell 173

5.4.3 Concentrations of Reactants in Nanoreactors 173

5.5 Detection of ROS with the Nanoreactor 174

5.5.1 Stopped Flow Analyses of Luminescence 174

5.5.2 Time-Resolved Luminescence of Luminol in Solution and Inside Nanoreactors 175

5.5.3 Spectrophotometric Chemiluminescence and Fluorescence Analyses Show That RET Is Significantly Enhanced in Nanoreactors 176

5.5.4 The RET Takes Place Inside Nanoreactors 177

5.6 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Diseases 178

5.6.1 Significance of ROS in Human Bodies 178

5.6.2 Conventional Methods of ROS Detection Are Cumbersome and Often Error Ridden Due to the Influence of Compounds Found in the Body 179

5.7 Conclusions 180

References 181

6 Surface Nanoreactors for Efficient Catalysis of Hydrolytic Reactions 187

6.1 Introduction 187

6.1.1 Emulsion-Based Surface Nanoreactors 191

6.1.2 Polymer-Based Surface Nanoreactors (Case of Polymer Aggregates) 195

6.1.3 Polymer-Based Surface Nanoreactors (Case of Polymer Globules) 199

6.2 Conclusion 205

Acknowledgements 206

References 207

7 Nanoreactors for Enzyme Therapy 209

7.1 Enzymes and Disease 209

7.2 Enzyme Therapy 210

7.2.1 Intravenous Administration and Chemical Modification of Enzymes for Therapeutic Use 212

7.2.2 Antibody and Viral Vector Targeting of Enzyme Therapies 214

7.2.3 Microreactor Immobilization of Enzyme Therapies 215

7.2.4 Nanoreactor Immobilization of Enzyme Therapies 217

7.3 Summary 223

References 223

8 Nanoractors in Stem Cell Research 229

8.1 Stem Cells Are a Crucial Cell Population in Animal and Human Organisms 230

8.2 (Stem) Cells as Nanoreactors 232

8.3 The Concept of Stem Cells is Born: Definition of the Hematopoetic Stem Cell 233

8.4 "New" Stem Cell Types 236

8.4.1 Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSC) 238

8.5 Nanoreactors/Nanoparticles and Mammalian (Stem) Cells 240

8.5.1 Prerequisites for Polymers and Other Components of Nanoparticles and Nanoreactors for Use in Stem Cell Biology 240

8.5.2 Components of Nanodevices to Be Considered in Affecting (Stem) Cell Functions 241

8.5.3 Synthesis of Nanoreactors and Nanoparticles for Use in (Stem) Cell Biology and Therapy 243

8.5.4 Polymers and Surface Modifications Used for Applications in Mammalian Cells and Medical Applications 244

8.5.5 Selection of Stem cells for Transplantation 244

8.5.6 Diagnostic Use of Nanotechnology in Stem Cell Biology 246

8.5.7 Therapeutic Options of Nanoreactors and Nanoparticles in Stem Cell Transplantation 250

8.5.8 Enhancing Effectiveness of Nanoparticles and Nanoreactors in Human (Stem) Cells-Understanding and Influencing the Uptake of Nanostructured Materials in (Stem) Cells 251

8.5.9 Future Directions for Nanoreactors and Mammalian (Stem) Cells 256

References 257

About the Editors 269

List of Contributors 271

Index 273