Biofuels Refining and Performance Book

Contributors     xi
Preface     xiii
Energy and Its Biological Resources   K. B. De     1
Energy (Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow)     1
Energy     5
Thermodynamics     5
Energy-Dependent Ecosystems     7
Photosynthetic factors     8
Bioenergy     9
Biological Energetics     11
Chemical Cell     16
Models of Bioenergy Cells     18
Oxidative phosphorylation path     19
Photosynthetic path     19
A Living Cell Is an Ideal Cell     21
Plant Cells Are Unique     22
Photosynthetic bacteria     25
Biofuels     25
Heterocystous blue-green algae (example, Anabaena cylindrica)     26
Photofermentation by photosynthetic bacteria (example, Rhodospirillium rubrum)     26
Methane production     27
Plant Hydrocarbons     27
Biogas     28
Gobargas     30
Biomass, Gasification, and Pyrolysis     34
Biomass     34
Gasification and pyrolysis     34
Bioluminescence     35
Hydrogen     37
Microbialconversion     38
References     43
Photosynthetic Plants as Renewable Energy Sources   Ahindra Nag   P. Manchikanti     45
Introduction     45
Mechanism and Efficiency of Photosynthesis in Plants     46
Photosynthetic Process     47
Hill reaction (light reaction)     48
Blackman's reaction (dark reaction)     49
Efficiency of photosynthesis     49
Plant Types and Growing Cycles     52
Harvesting Plants for Bioenergy     60
Products     61
Gaseous products     62
Liquid products     62
Solid products     63
References     66
Bioethanol: Market and Production Processes   Mohammad J. Taherzadeh   Keikhosro Karimi     69
Introduction     69
Global Market of Bioethanol and Future Prospects     69
Overall Process of Bioethanol Production     72
Production of Sugars from Raw Materials     73
Sugar solution from starchy materials     73
Acid hydrolysis of starch     74
Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch     75
Characterization of Lignocellulosic Materials      76
Cellulose     76
Hemicellulose     77
Lignin     77
Sugar Solution from Lignocellulosic Materials     77
Chemical hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials     78
Pretreatment prior to enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials     80
Enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials     81
Basic Concepts of Fermentation     82
Conversion of Simple Sugars to Ethanol     83
Biochemical Basis of Ethanol Production from Hexoses     83
Chemical Basis of Ethanol Production from Pentoses     85
Microorganisms Related to Ethanol Fermentation     86
Yeasts     86
Bacteria     87
Filamentous fungi     88
Fermentation Process     89
Batch processes     90
Fed-batch processes     91
Continuous processes     92
Series-arranged continuous flow fermentation     94
Strategies for fermentation of enzymatic lignocellulosic hydrolyzates     95
Separate enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF)     95
Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF)     96
Comparison between enzymatic and acid hydrolysis for lignocellulosic materials      97
Ethanol Recovery     98
Distillation     98
Alternative Processes for Ethanol Recovery and Purification     100
Ethanol Dehydration     101
Molecular sieve adsorption     101
Membrane technology     101
Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects     102
References     102
Raw Materials to Produce Low-Cost Biodiesel   M. P. Dorado     107
Introduction     107
Nonedible Oils     109
Bahapilu oil     110
Castor oil     111
Cottonseed oil     113
Cuphea oil     114
Jatropha curcas oil     115
Karanja seed oil     116
Linseed oil     117
Mahua oil     119
Nagchampa oil     120
Neem oil     121
Rubber seed oil     122
Tonka bean oil     123
Low-Cost Edible Oils     124
Cardoon oil     124
Ethiopian mustard oil     125
Gold-of-pleasure oil     126
Tigernut oil     127
Used Frying Oils     129
Animal Fats     131
Future Lines      132
Allanblackia oil     133
Bitter almond oil     133
Chaulmoogra oil     134
Papaya oil     135
Sal oil     136
Tung oil     137
Ucuuba oil     138
Acknowledgments     139
References     140
Fuel and Physical Properties of Biodiesel Components   Gerhard Knothe     149
Introduction     149
Cetane Number and Exhaust Emissions     152
Cold-Flow Properties     154
Oxidative Stability     156
Iodine value     157
Viscosity     158
Lubricity     159
Outlook     159
References     160
Processing of Vegetable Oils as Biodiesel and Engine Performance   Ahindra Nag     165
Introduction     165
Processing of Vegetable Oils to Biodiesel     169
Degumming of vegetable oils     169
Transesterification of vegetable oils by acid or alkali     177
Enzymatic transesterification of vegetable oils     181
Engine performance with esters of vegetable oil     183
Engine Performance with Esters of Tallow and Frying Oil     186
References      187
Ethanol and Methanol as Fuels in Internal Combustion Engines   B. B. Ghosh   Ahindra Nag     191
Introduction     191
Alcohols as Substitute Fuels for IC Engines     193
Ethanol as an alternative fuel     193
Production of ethanol     194
Distillation of Alcohol     198
Properties of Ethanol and Methanol     198
Use of Blends     200
Performance of Engine Using Ethanol     202
Alcohols in CI Engine     204
Alcohol-diesel fuel solution     206
Alcohol-diesel fuel emulsions     207
Spark ignition     207
Ignition improvers     207
Methanol as an Alternate Fuel     208
Production of methanol     209
Emission     211
Fuel system and cold starting     211
Corrosion     212
Toxicity of methanol     212
Formaldehyde emission     213
Comparison of Ethanol and Methanol     217
Ecosystem Impacts Using Alcohol Fuels     218
Aquatic system impacts     218
Terrestrial system impacts     218
Occupational health impacts      218
Occupational safety impacts     218
Socioeconomic impacts     219
Transportation and infrastructure impacts     219
References     219
Cracking of Lipids for Fuels and Chemicals   Ernst A. Stadlbauer   Sebastian Bojanowski     221
Introduction     221
Thermal Degradation Process     222
Catalytic cracking (CC)     224
Vegetable Oil Fuels/Hydrocarbon Blends     225
Refitting engines     227
Tailored conversion products     227
Feed component in FCC     237
Other Metal Oxide Catalysts     239
Cracking by In Situ Catalysts     241
Conclusion     246
References     246
Fuel Cells   A. K. Sinha     251
Introduction     251
Fuel Cell Basics     252
Types of Fuel Cells     255
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)     255
Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs)     263
Alkaline-electrolyte fuel cells (AFCs)     264
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs)     267
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs)     271
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)      274
Biofuel cells     279
Fuel Cell System     284
Fuel processor     284
Air management     287
Water management     287
Thermal management     287
Power-conditioning system     288
Fuel Cell Applications     288
Conclusion     291
References     292
Appendix     295
Index     297