Surface and Thin Film Analysis Book

Preface to the First Edition XVII

Preface to the Second Edition XIX

List of Contributors XXI

1 Introduction 1
John C. Rivière and Henning Bubert

Part One Electron Detection 7

2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 9
Henning Bubert, John C. Rivière, and Wolfgang S.M. Werner

2.1 Principles 9

2.2 Instrumentation 12

2.3 Spectral Information and Chemical Shifts 19

2.4 Quantification, Depth Profiling, and Imaging 21

2.5 The Auger Parameter 27

2.6 Applications 28

2.7 Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS) 38

References 39

3 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) 43
Henning Bubert, John C. Rivière, and Wolfgang S.M. Werner

3.1 Principles 43

3.2 Instrumentation 44

3.3 Spectral Information 47

3.4 Quantification and Depth Profiling 51

3.5 Applications 54

3.6 Scanning Auger Microscopy (SAM) 61

References 64

4 Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) and Energy-Filtering Transmission Electron Microscopy (EFTEM) 67
Reinhard Schneider

4.1 Principles 68

4.2 Instrumentation 70

4.3 Qualitative Spectral Information 72

4.4 Quantification 83

4.5 Imaging of Element Distribution 85

4.6 Summary 88

References 89

5 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED) 93
Georg Held

5.1 Principles and History 93

5.2 Instrumentation 94

5.3 Qualitative Information 96

5.4 Quantitative Structural Information 101

5.5 Low-Energy Electron Microscopy 106

References 108

6 Other Electron-Detecting Techniques 111
John C. Rivière

6.1 Ion (Excited) Auger Electron Spectroscopy (IAES) 111

6.2 Ion Neutralization Spectroscopy (INS) 111

6.3 Inelastic Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy (IETS) 112

Reference 113

Part Two Ion Detection 115

7 Static Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SSIMS) 117
Heinrich F. Arlinghaus

7.1 Principles 117

7.2 Instrumentation 119

7.3 Quantification 123

7.4 Spectral Information 125

7.5 Applications 127

References 138

8 Dynamic Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 141
Herbert Hutter

8.1 Principles 141

8.2 Instrumentation 143

8.3 Spectral Information 146

8.4 Quantification 147

8.5 Mass Spectra 149

8.6 Depth Profiles 149

8.7 Imaging 152

8.8 Three-Dimensional (3-D)-SIMS 154

8.9 Applications 156

References 159

9 Electron-Impact (EI) Secondary Neutral Mass Spectrometry (SNMS) 161
Michael Kopnarski and Holger Jenett

9.1 Introduction 161

9.2 General Principles of SNMS 162

9.3 Instrumentation and Methods 166

9.4 Spectral Information and Quantification 170

9.5 Element Depth Profiling 172

9.6 Applications 174

References 175

10 Laser Secondary Neutral Mass Spectrometry (Laser-SNMS) 179
Heinrich F. Arlinghaus

10.1 Principles 179

10.2 Instrumentation 182

10.3 Spectral Information 183

10.4 Quantification 183

10.5 Applications 184

References 189

11 Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS) 191
Leopold Palmetshofer

11.1 Introduction 191

11.2 Principles 191

11.3 Instrumentation 194

11.4 Spectral Information 194

11.5 Quantification 196

11.6 Figures of Merit 197

11.7 Applications 198

11.8 Related Techniques 201

References 201

12 Low-Energy Ion Scattering (LEIS) 203
Peter Bauer

12.1 Principles 203

12.2 Instrumentation 206

12.3 LEIS Information 208

12.4 Quantification 211

12.5 Applications of LEIS 211

References 214

13 Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis (ERDA) 217
Oswald Benka

13.1 Introduction 217

13.2 Fundamentals 218

13.3 Particle Identifi cation Methods 220

13.4 Equipment 222

13.5 Data Analysis 223

13.6 Sensitivity and Depth Resolution 223

13.7 Applications 224

References 226

14 Nuclear Reaction Analysis (NRA) 229
Oswald Benka

14.1 Introduction 229

14.2 Principles 231

14.3 Equipment and Depth Resolution 232

14.4 Applications 234

References 236

15 Field Ion Microscopy (FIM) and Atom Probe (AP) 237
Yuri Suchorski and Wolfgang Drachsel

15.1 Introduction 237

15.2 Principles and Instrumentation 239

15.3 Applications 248

References 257

16 Other Ion-Detecting Techniques 261
John C. Rivière

16.1 Desorption Methods 261

16.2 Glow-Discharge Mass Spectroscopy (GD-MS) 263

16.3 Fast-Atom Bombardment Mass Spectroscopy (FABMS) 263

References 264

Part Three Photon Detection 265

17 Total-Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Analysis 267
Laszlo Fabry, Siegfried Pahlke, and Burkhard Beckhoff

17.1 Principles 267

17.2 Instrumentation 269

17.3 Spectral Information 275

17.4 Quantification 276

17.5 Applications 277

References 288

18 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDXS) 293
Reinhard Schneider

18.1 Principles 293

18.2 Practical Aspects of X-Ray Microanalysis and Instrumentation 295

18.3 Qualitative Spectral Information 303

18.4 Quantification 304

18.5 Imaging of Element Distribution 306

18.6 Summary 308

References 309

19 Grazing Incidence X-Ray Methods for Near-Surface Structural Studies 311
P. Neil Gibson

19.1 Principles 311

19.2 Experimental Techniques and Data Analysis 317

19.3 Applications 321

References 326

20 Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectroscopy (GD-OES) 329
Volker Hoffmann and Alfred Quentmeier

20.1 Principles 329

20.2 Instrumentation 330

20.3 Spectral Information 335

20.4 Quantification 336

20.5 Depth Profiling 337

20.6 Applications 339

References 342

21 Surface Analysis by Laser Ablation 345
Roland Hergenröder and Michail Bolshov

21.1 Introduction 345

21.2 Instrumentation 346

21.3 Depth Profiling 348

21.4 Near-Field Ablation 354

21.5 Conclusion 354

References 355

22 Ion Beam Spectrochemical Analysis (IBSCA) 357
Volker Rupertus

22.1 Principles 357

22.2 Instrumentation 358

22.3 Spectral and Analytical Information 360

22.4 Quantitative Analysis by IBSCA 361

22.5 Applications 363

References 366

23 Reflection Absorption IR Spectroscopy (RAIRS) 367
Karsten Hinrichs

23.1 Instrumentation 367

23.2 Principles 368

23.3 Applications 369

23.4 Related Techniques 374

References 374

24 Surface Raman Spectroscopy 377
Wieland Hill and Bernhard Lendl

24.1 Principles 377

24.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) 378

24.3 Instrumentation 380

24.4 Spectral Information 382

24.5 Quantification 383

24.6 Applications 383

24.7 Nonlinear Optical Spectroscopy 387

References 390

25 UV-VIS-IR Ellipsometry (ELL) 393
Bernd Gruska and Karsten Hinrichs

25.1 Principles 393

25.2 Instrumentation 395

25.3 Applications 398

References 405

26 Sum Frequency Generation (SFG) Spectroscopy 407
Günther Rupprechter and Athula Bandara

26.1 Introduction to SFG Spectroscopy 407

26.2 SFG Theory 410

26.3 SFG Instrumentation and Operation Modes 414

26.4 Applications of SFG Spectroscopy and Selected Case Studies 417

26.5 Conclusion 430

References 430

27 Other Photon-Detecting Techniques 437
John C. Rivière

27.1 Appearance Potential Methods 437

27.2 Inverse Photoemission Spectroscopy (IPES) and Bremsstrahlung Isochromat Spectroscopy (BIS) 437

Part Four Scanning Probe Microscopy 439

28 Introduction 441
Gernot Friedbacher

References 442

29 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 443
Gernot Friedbacher

29.1 Principles 443

29.2 Further Modes of AFM Operation 446

29.3 Instrumentation 452

29.4 Applications 455

References 462

30 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) 465
Gernot Friedbacher

30.1 Principles 465

30.2 Instrumentation 467

30.3 Lateral and Spectroscopic Information 468

30.4 Applications 470

References 479

31 Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM) 481
Marc Richter and Volker Deckert

31.1 Introduction 481

31.2 Instrumentation and Operation 482

31.3 SNOM Applications 488

31.4 Outlook 493

References 493

Appendices 499

Appendix A Summary and Comparison of Techniques 501

Appendix B Surface and Thin-Film Analytical

Equipment Suppliers 507

Index 519