Modern Phytomedicine: Turning Medicinal Plants into Drugs Book

Preface     XV
List of Contributors     XVII
Bioactive Phytocompounds: New Approaches in the Phytosciences   Ricardo Ramos Mendonca-Filho     1
Introduction     2
Development of Fast Reliable Methods of Extraction and High-Throughoutput Screening (HTS) of Crude Plant Extracts: New Challenges     3
Antimicrobial Bioactive Phytocompounds from Extraction to Identification: Process Standardization     6
Problems Associated with the Efficacy, Stability and Quality Control of Herbal Drugs Preparations     13
Novel Bioactive Phytocompounds Against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria/Fungi: The Management of Infectious and Chronic Diseases     17
Mode of Action of Bioactive Phytocompounds and their Interactions with Macromolecules and Toxicity     18
Bioactive Phytocompounds and Future Perspectives     21
References     23
Quality Control, Screening, Toxicity, and Regulation of Herbal Drugs   Wickramasinghe M. Bandaranayake     25
Introduction     26
Preparation of Herbal Drugs     29
Quality Control of Herbal Drugs     30
Parameters for Quality Control of Herbal Drugs     34
Microscopic Evaluation     34
Determination of Foreign Matter     34
Determination of Ash     35
Determination of Heavy Metals     35
Determination of Microbial Contaminants and Aflatoxins     35
Determination of Pesticide Residues     36
Determination of Radioactive Contamination     37
Analytical Methods     37
Validation     38
Herbal Supplements     39
Adulteration of Herbal Drugs     40
Contamination of Herbal Drugs and Herb-Drug Interactions     41
Toxicity of Herbal Drugs     43
Screening of Herbal Drugs     45
Labeling of Herbal Products     46
Policies and Regulations     47
Trends and Developments     49
Conclusions     50
References     53
Herbal Medicines: Prospects and Constraints   Iqbal Ahmad   Farrukh Aqil   Farah Ahmad   Mohammad Owais     59
Introduction     59
Traditional Systems of Medicine     61
Asian Medicinal System     61
European Herbalism     61
Neo-Western Herbalism     61
Modern Phytomedicine     61
Prospects for Herbal Medicine     62
Indian System-Based Herbal Medicine     64
Progress in the Pharmacokinetics and Bioavailability of Herbal Medicine     67
Constraints in Herbal Medicine     68
Reproducibility of Biological Activity of Herbal Extracts     68
Toxicity and Adverse Effects     68
Adulteration and Contamination     69
Herb-Drug Interactions     69
Standardization     71
Regulatory Challenges of Asian Herbal Medicine     71
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) for Herbal Medicine     72
Improving the Quality, Safety and Efficacy of Herbal Medicine     72
Quality Management     73
Encouraging Mediculture     73
Correct Identification of Plant Material     74
Minimizing Contamination in Herbal Medicine     74
Conclusions     74
Acknowledgments     75
References     76
Bioactive Phytocompounds and Products Traditionally Used in Japan   Jin-ichi Sasaki     79
Introduction     80
Garlic     80
Introduction     80
Biological Effect of Garlic     81
Antibacterial Effects     81
Anticoagulation Effects     84
Antioxidant Activity     86
Therapeutic Effects of Garlic Powder in the Organophosphate Compound Poisoning Mouse as a Model of SARS     87
Mushroom     87
Introduction     87
Biological Effects     88
Antitumor Activity     88
Sweetcorn     92
Introduction     92
Biological Effects     92
Antitumor Activity of Sweetcorn     92
Oil and Flavor of Tree Hiba (Japanese Cypress) (Hinokitiol)     94
Introduction     94
Biological Effects     94
Conclusions     95
Acknowledgments     96
References     96
Plant Extracts Used to Manage Bacterial, Fungal, and Parasitic Infections in Southern Africa   J.N. Eloff   L.J. McGaw     97
Introduction     98
Biodiversity in Southern Africa     99
Use of Plants in Southern African Traditional Medicine     99
The Need for Anti-Infective Agents     100
Selection of Plant Species to Investigate     100
Ethnobotanical Approach     101
Chemotaxonomy     101
Random Selection     101
Collecting, Drying, and Storage of Plant Material     102
Extraction of Plant Material     103
Which is the Best Extractant?     103
Extraction Period and Efficiency     104
Selective Extraction     104
Redissolving Extracts for Quantitative Data     105
Storage of Extracts     105
Evaluating Quantitative Antimicrobial Activity     105
Evaluating Qualitative Biological Activity     106
Expression of Results     107
Antibacterial Activity     108
Results on Antibacterial Activity Obtained with Members of the Combretaceae     109
Introduction     109
Combretum erythrophyllum     109
Antibacterial Activity of Southern African Members of the Combretaceae     109
Stability of Extracts     110
Anti-Inflammatory Activity     110
Other Activities of Extracts of Combretum Species     111
Isolation and Biological Activity of Antibacterial Compounds from C. erythrophyllum     111
Combretum woodii     111
Unpublished Work on Other Members of the Combretaceae     112
Antifungal Activity     112
Antiparasitic Activity     113
Other Anti-Infective Research in South Africa     115
Cytotoxicity     115
Ethnoveterinary Research     116
Determining the in vivo Efficacy of Extracts and Isolated Compounds     117
Conclusion     118
References     119
Biological and Toxicological Properties of Moroccan Plant Extracts: Advances in Research   M. Larhsini     123
Introduction     123
Ethnobotanic and Ethnopharmacology of Traditional Moroccan Plants     125
Ethnobotanic Surveys     125
Biological Activities     126
Antimicrobial Properties     126
Antidiabetic Activity     128
Other Biological Activities     131
Toxicological Assays     131
Conclusions     132
References     133
Anti-MRSA and Anti-VRE Activities of Phytoalexins and Phytoncides Isolated from Tropical Plants   Yoshikazu Sakagami     137
Introduction     138
Phytoalexins and Phytoncides     139
Antibiotics     140
Bacteria and Broth     140
VRE     140
VSE     141
MRSA     141
MSSA     141
Broth     141
Isolation of Phytoalexins and Phytoncides     141
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration     142
Synergism of Antibacterial Compounds with Commercially Available Antibiotics     142
Antibacterial Activities     143
Sophoraflavanone G     143
Calozeyloxanthone     144
[alpha]-Mangostin     144
Gnemonol B and Gnetin E     145
Summary of MIC Values of Phytoalexin and Phytoncide Against MRSA and VRE     146
Synergism Between the Test Compounds and Commercial Antibiotics Against VRE, MRSA, VSE, and MSSA     147
Sophoraflavanone G     147
Calozeyloxanthone     148
[alpha]-Mangostin     148
Stilbene Oligomer     151
Summary of Synergistic Effects Between the Test Compounds and the Commercial Antibiotics Against VRE and MRSA     153
References     154
Methods for Testing the Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts   Jenny M. Wilkinson     157
Introduction     157
Antibacterial Assays     158
Semi-Solid Substrate Methods     161
Disk Diffusion Method     161
Agar Dilution Method     162
Broth Dilution Methods     163
Thin-Layer Chromatography-Bioautography     364
Antifungal Assays     165
In vivo Assessment of Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity     166
Methods for Assessing Antiviral Activity     367
Screening of Plant Extracts for Antiparasitic Activity     367
Conclusions     168
References     169
Targeted Screening of Bioactive Plant Extracts and Phytocompounds Against Problematic Groups of Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria   Fanukh Aqil   Iqbal Ahmad   Mohammad Owais     173
Introduction     174
Multiple Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria     174
Plants as a Source of Novel Bioactive Compounds     177
Approaches to Targeted Screening Against MDR Bacteria     179
MDR Efflux Pump Inhibitors from Plants     180
[Beta]-Lactamase Inhibitors     181
Synergy Between Phytocompounds and Antibiotics     182
Targeting Virulence and Pathogenicity     185
Quorum Sensing Inhibitors     186
Other Potential Approaches     189
Targeting Gene Transfer Mechanisms     189
Targeting R-Plasmid Elimination     190
Conclusions and Future Directions     191
Acknowledgments     192
References     193
Activity of Plant Extracts and Plant-Derived Compounds against Drug-Resistant Microorganisms   Antonia Nostra     199
Introduction      199
Plant Materials with General Antimicrobial Activity Including some Drug-Resistant Strains     200
Plant Materials with Specific Antimicrobial Activity Against Drug-Resistant Strains     201
Drug-Resistant Gram-Positive Bacteria     201
Drug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria     211
Other Drug-Resistant Microorganisms     212
Plant Materials that Restore the Effectiveness of Antimicrobial Agents and/or Inhibit Drug Resistance Mechanisms     223
Other Mechanisms     225
Conclusions     226
References     226
Alternative Holistic Medicinal Approach to the Total Management of Hepatic Disorders: A Novel Polyherbal Formulation   Mohammad Owais   Iqbal Ahmad   Shazia Khan   Umber Khan   Nadeem Ahmad     233
Introduction     233
Conventional Medicines for Liver Disorders     236
Herbal Medicines - Potential Therapeutic Agents with Minimal Side-Effects     237
Contributions of Elementology to Potential Treatments for Hepatic Disorders     240
Other Alternatives in Liver Therapy     242
Conclusions     242
References     243
Traditional Plants and Herbal Remedies Used in the Treatment of Diarrheal Disease: Mode of Action, Quality, Efficacy, and Safety Considerations   Enzo A. Palombo     247
Introduction     248
Methods Used in the Evaluation of Bioactivity of Medicinal Plants     249
Antibacterial Activity     249
Antiprotozoal Activity     250
Antihelminthic Activity     250
Antiviral Activity     250
Antidiarrheal Activity     251
Traditional Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Diarrhea that Display Antimicrobial Activity     252
Traditional Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Diarrhea that Display Antidiarrheal Activity     255
Phytochemical Analysis, Identification of Active Plant Components, and Mechanism of Action of Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Diarrhea     260
Quality, Efficacy, and Safety Considerations     261
Conclusions     266
Acknowledgments     267
References     267
Mutagenicity and Antimutagenicity of Medicinal Plants   Javed Musarrat   Farrukh Aqil   Iqbal Ahmad     271
Introduction     271
Plants as Protective Agents Against DNA Damage     272
Antimutagenic Properties of Edible and Medicinal Plants     274
Mutagenicity of Plant Extracts and Phytocompounds     279
"Janus Carcinogens and Mutagens"     280
Chemical Nature of Phytoantimutagenic Compounds     281
Flavonoids     282
Phenolic Compounds     282
Coumarins     282
Diterpenoids     282
Organosulfur Compounds     283
Assays for Mutagenicity and Antimutagenicity     283
Paradigms in Antimutagenicity Research     285
Conclusions     285
References     286
Potential of Plant-Derived Products in the Treatment of Mycobacterial Infections   Deepa Bisht   Mohammad Owais   K. Venkatesan     293
Introduction     293
Current Therapy of Tuberculosis and Leprosy     294
Need for Newer Antimycobacterial Drugs     295
Plant Extracts     295
Well-Characterized Plant-Derived Compounds     297
Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Fatty Acids and their Esters and Simple Aromatics     297
Alkaloids     299
Phenolics and Acetogenic Quinones     302
Terpenes     304
Steroids     308
Conclusion     308
Acknowledgements     309
References     309
Ethnomedicinal Antivirals: Scope and Opportunity   Debprasad Chattopadhyay     313
Introduction     313
Ethnomedicines and Drug Discovery     314
Viruses: The Acellular Parasite of Cellular Hosts     315
Viral Infection Control     316
Antiviral Ethnomedicines Against Common Virus Families     316
Major Groups of Antivirals from Plants     321
Phenolics and Polyphenols     322
Coumarins     323
Quinones     324
Flavones, Flavonoids, and Flavonols     324
Tannins     327
Lignans     327
Terpenoids and Essential Oils     328
Alkaloids     329
Lectins, Polypeptides and Sugar-Containing Compounds     330
Mixtures and Other Compounds     330
Experimental Approaches     331
In Vitro Efficacy     331
Clinical Trials in Humans     332
Future Prospects     334
Conclusions     334
Acknowledgments     335
References     335
Immunomodulatory Effects of Phytocompounds   Buket Cicioglu Aridogan     341
Introduction     342
General Properties and Classification of Phytocompounds     342
Effect of Specific Medicinal Herbs on Immune System and Immune Cells     343
General Properties of Echinacea Species     344
Effects of Echinacea Species on the Immune System and Various Immune Cells     345
Asteraceae     349
Lithospermum erythrorhizon     351
Guarana     352
Side and Adverse Effects of Some Phytocompounds     352
Conclusion     353
References     354
Use of a Liposomal Delivery System for Herbal-Based Therapeutics (with a Focus on Clove Oil)   Nadeem Ahmad   Maroof Alam   Iqbal Ahmad   Mohammad Owais     357
Introduction     357
Cinnamon Oil     359
Oregano Oil     359
Clove Oil     359
Composition of the Clove Oil Used     360
Rationale for Using Liposomized Formulation of Clove Oil     361
Advantageous Properties of Liposomes     362
Experiments Conducted to Develop Liposomal Clove Oil Formulation     362
Determination of MIC of Clove Oil against Candida albicans     363
Determination of MIC of Clove Oil against Escherichia coli     363
In Vitro Antibacterial Activity Test Results     363
In Vitro Antifungal Activity Tests Results (Table 17.4)      364
In Vivo Antifungal Activity Test Results against Experimental Vaginal Candidiasis     364
Evaluation of Efficacy of Liposomized Clove Oil     364
Evaluation of Route of Administration     365
Conclusions     366
References     366
Subject Index     369