Particle Beam Microanalysis : Fundamentals, Methods and Applications Book

List of frequently used symbols

List of abbreviations

1 Introduction

1.1 What microtechnology requires of analysis

1.2 Overview of microanalytical methods

1.3 Particle beam methods

1.4 Analysis error and detection limits

1.5 References

2 Fundamentals

2.1 Fundamental concepts of solid state physics

2.1.1 Structure of solids, crystals

2.1.2 Energy states in solids

2.1.3 pn-junctions in semiconductors

2.2 Charged particles

2.2.1 Forces acting on charged particles

2.2.2 Focusing of charged particles

2.3 Electron beams

2.3.1 Electron sources

2.3.2 Forming of electron probes

2.4 Interaction between electrons and solids

2.4.1 Electron scattering

2.4.2 Elastic electron scattering and electron diffraction

2.4.3 Inelastic electron scattering

2.5 Ion beams

2.5.1 Properties of accelerated ions

2.5.2 Generation of free ions

2.5.3 Ion sources

2.5.4 Forming of ion probes

2.6 Interactions between ions and solids

2.6.1 General

2.6.2 Ion implantation

2.6.3 Specimen modifications

2.6.4 Sputtering

2.6.5 Ionization

2.6.6 Sputter depth profiling

2.7 References

3 Scanning electron microscopy

3.1 Principle

3.2 Instrumentation

3.2.1 Overall system

3.2.2 Electron-optical column

3.2.3 Specimen stage

3.2.4 Detectors

3.2.5 Signal and image processing

3.3 Specimen preparation

3.3.1 Changes of the specimen under electron bombardment

3.3.2 Mounting the specimen

3.3.3 Coating with electrically conductive films

3.3.4 Preparation of semiconductor devices

3.4 Imaging with secondary electrons

3.4.1 Contributions to the secondary electron signal

3.4.2 Image contrast

3.4.3 Spatial resolution and depth of focus

3.4.4Low-voltage microscopy and linewidth metrology

3.5 Imaging with backscattered electrons

3.5.1 Image contrast and resolution

3.5.2 Electron channeling patterns

3.6 Cathodoluminescence and electron beam induced current mode

3.6.1 Charge carrier generation

3.6.2 Cathodoluminescence

3.6.3 Electron beam induced current (EBIC)

3.7 Other methods

3.7.1 Overview

3.7.2 Specimen current mode

3.7.3 Imaging of magnetic fields

3.7.4 Thermal wave microscopy

3.8 References

4 Transmission electron microscopy

4.1 Principle

4.1.1 Basic layout

4.1.2 Scattering of fast electrons

4.1.3 Relationship between imaging and diffraction

4.1.4 Electron diffraction

4.1.5 Imaging modes

4.1.6 Image contrast

4.1.7 Analytical electron microscopy

4.2 Instrumentation

4.2.1 Overall system

4.2.2 Electron-optical column

4.2.3 Specimen stage

4.2.4 Image recording and processing

4.2.5 Electron detectors and analytical attachements

4.2.6 Types of microscope

4.3 Specimen preparation techniques

4.3.1 Introduction

4.3.2 Initial preparation of bulk specimens

4.3.3 Chemical and electrochemical polishing

4.3.4 Ion-beam thinning

4.3.5 Preparation of thin cross sections

4.3.6 Thin films and small particles

4.4 Electron diffraction patterns

4.4.1 Introduction

4.4.2 Structure factor and shape of diffraction maxima

4.4.3 Analysis of diffraction patterns

4.4.4 Electron microdiffraction

4.4.5 Reflection high-energy electron diffraction

4.5 Diffraction contrast from perfect crystals and crystal defects

4.5.1 Diffraction contrast from perfect crystals

4.5.2 Diffraction contrast from imperfect crystals

4.5.3 Dislocations

4.5.4 Planar defects

4.5.5 Precipitates

4.6 High-resolution electron microscopy

4.6.1 Image formation

4.6.2 Lattice imaging of crystals

4.6.3 Computer simulation of lattice images

4.7 Scanning-transmission and analytical electron microscopy

4.7.1 Image contrast in the scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM)

4.7.2 Electron energy-loss spectroscopy

4.7.3 Specimen contamination and radiation damage

4.8 Other Methods

4.8.1 Overview

4.8.2 Fresnel fringes

4.8.3 Imaging of magnetic domains

4.9 References

5 Electron beam X-ray microanalysis

5.1 Principle

5.1.1 X-ray spectra

5.1.2 X-ray microanalysis

5.2 Instrumentation

5.2.1 Overall design

5.2.2 Electron-optical column

5.2.3 Wavelength-dispersive spectrometer (WDS)

5.2.4 Energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS)

5.2.5 Comparison between WDS and EDS

5.3 Measurement technique

5.3.1 Signal processing for the WDS

5.3.2 Signal processing for the EDS

5.3.3 Specimen preparation and alignment

5.3.4 Qualitative analysis

5.3.5 Point, line and area analysis

5.4 Quantitative analysis

5.4.1 Background correction

5.4.2 Analysis with matched standards

5.4.3 Matrix effects on the intensity

5.4.4 The ZAF correction factors

5.4.5 The ZAF iteration procedure

5.4.6 Theoretical standards

5.5 Analysis with low-energy radiation

5.6 Thin films and particles

5.6.1 Thin films on substrates

5.6.2 Unsupported thin films

5.6.3 Particles

5.7 Detection limits

5.8 References

6 Auger electron microanalysis

6.1 Principle

6.2 Instrumentation

6.2.1 Overall design

6.2.2 Electron probe

6.2.3 Ion gun

6.2.4 Spectrometer

6.3 Measurement technique

6.3.1 Spectra representation

6.3.2 Signal processing

6.3.3 Specimen preparation and alignment

6.3.4 Characteristic Auger spectra, qualitative analysis

6.4 Quantitative Analysis

6.4.1 Matrix effects

6.4.2 Analysis with standards

6.4.3 Analysis with sensitivity factors

6.5 Depth profiling

6.6 Scanning Auger microscopy

6.7 Limits of detection

6.8 References

7 Secondary ion mass spectrometry

7.1 Principle

7.2 Instrumentation

7.2.1 Fundamental setup

7.2.2 Mass spectrometer

7.2.3 Ion microprobe

7.2.4 Ion microscope

7.2.5 Comparison of probe and microscope arrangements

7.3 Measurement technique

7.3.1 Specimen treatment

7.3.2 Energy distribution and energy filtering

7.3.3 Mass spectra and surface analysis

7.3.4 Depth profiling

7.4 Quantitative analysis

7.4.1 Theoretical models

7.4.2 Quantification with sensitivity factors

7.4.3 Quantification of depth profiles

7.4.4 Comparison of quantification methods

7.4.5 Detection limits

7.5 References

8 Electron beam testing

8.1 Principle

8.2 Modes of operation

8.2.1 Qualitative modes

8.2.2 Quantitative modes

8.2.3 Modes of logic state presentation

8.3 Instrumentation

8.3.1 Requirements on electron probes

8.3.2 Fundamental setup

8.3.3 Secondary electron spectrometer

8.3.4 Dedicated electron beam tester

8.4 Measurement technique

8.4.1 Voltage resolution

8.4.2 Relationship between measurement parameters

8.4.3 Survey of electron beam test methods

8.5 References

9 Applications

9.1 Analysis strategy

9.2 Silicon technology

9.2.1 Introductory remarks

9.2.2 Shallow doping profiles and residual implantation damage

9.2.3 Localizing pn-junctions

9.2.4 Polysilicon diffusion sources

9.2.5 Refractory metal silicide films

9.2.6 Metal contacts to silicon

9.2.7 Submicron device structures

9.3 Compound semiconductors

9.3.1 Introductory remarks

9.3.2 Characterization of heteroepitaxial layer structures

9.3.3 Depth profiling of doped heterostructures

9.3.4 Ohmic contacts to gallium arsenide

9.4 Electronic ceramics

9.4.1 Introductory remarks

9.4.2 Second phases in yttrium-doped barium titanate ceramics

9.4.3 Bismuth oxide phases in zinc oxide varistor ceramics

9.4.4 High-temperature superconductors

9.5 Electronic device testing

9.5.1 Electron beam test strategies

9.5.2 Circuit verification of a 4-Mbit DRAM

9.5.3 Examination of surface acoustic wave devices

9.6 Failure analysis

9.6.1 Problems and procedures of failure analysis

9.6.2 Failure analysis of dynamic memory devices

9.7 References

Index