Criminological Theories : Introduction, Evaluation, and Application Book

	Preface to the Fourth Edition	v
	Acknowledgments	vii
	Acknowledgments	vii
Chapter 1	Introduction to Criminological Theory
	What Is Theory?	1
	Types of Criminological Theories	2
	Theories of Making and Enforcing Criminal Law	2
	Theories of Criminal and Deviant Behavior	3
	Criteria for Evaluating Theory	5
	Logical Consistency, Scope, and Parsimony	5
	Testability	6
	Empirical Validity	8
	Usefulness and Policy Implications	11
	Theory and Ideology	12
	Emphasis on Empirical Validity and Application of Theories	14
	Summary	14
Chapter 2	Deterrence and Rational Choice Theories
	Classical Criminology and the Deterrence Doctrine	17
	Deterrence: Certainty, Severity, and Celerity of Punishment	18
	Modern Deterrence Theory	19
	Studies of Deterrence	19
	Do Criminal Sanctions Deter?	21
	Deterrence and Experiential Effects	22
	Modifications and Expansions of Deterrence Concepts	24
	Rational Choice Theory	26
	Deterrence and Expected Utility	26
	Research on Rational Choice Theory	26
	Deterrence and Criminal Justice Policy	29
	Scared Straight, Shock Incarceration, and Boot Camps	32
	Routine Activities Theory	33
	Felson and Cohen: Offenders, Targets, and Guardians	33
	Empirical Validity of Routine Activities Theory	35
	Routine Crime Prevention and Precautions	39
	Summary	41
Chapter 3	Biological Theories
	Introduction	45
	Lombroso and Early Biological Theories	45
	Lombroso's Theory of the Born Criminal	46
	The Criminal as Biologically Inferior	47
	Recognizing the Inadequacies of Early Biological Theories	49
	Modern Biological Theories of Crime and Delinquency	52
	IQ, Mental Functioning, and Delinquency	53
	Testosterone and Criminal Aggressiveness	55
	Genetically Transmitted Criminal Susceptibility: Behavioral Genetics	56
	Genetically Transmitted Criminal Susceptibility: Evolutionary Theory	61
	Empirical Validity of Biological Theories of Criminal Behavior	62
	Policy Implications of Biological Theories	64
	Summary	66
Chapter 4	Psychological Theories
	Psychoanalytic Theory	69
	Personality Theory	72
	Psychological Counseling in Delinquency Prevention and Treatment	74
	Summary	79
Chapter 5	Social Learning Theory
	Introduction	81
	Sutherland's Differential Association Theory	81
	Akers' Social Learning Theory	83
	Development of the Theory	83
	The Central Concepts and Propositions of Social Learning Theory	85
	The Social Learning Process: Sequence and Feedback Effects	89
	Social Structure and Social Learning	90
	Empirical Validity of Social Learning Theory	92
	Research on Relationship of Criminal and Delinquent Behavior to Social Learning Variables	92
	Research on Peers and Group Contexts in Crime and Delinquency	93
	Akers' Research on Social Learning Theory	96
	Research on Critiques of Social Learning Theory	98
	Applications of Social Learning Theory in Prevention and Treatment Programs	101
	Summary	109
Chapter 6	Social Bonding and Control Theories
	Introduction	111
	Early Control Theories	113
	Reiss' and Nye's Theories of Internal and External Controls	113
	Reckless's Containment Theory	114
	Sykes and Matza: Techniques of Neutralization and Drift	115
	Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory	116
	The Central Concepts and Propositions of Social Bonding Theory	117
	Empirical Validity of Social Bonding Theory	119
	Gottfredson and Hirschi: Self-Control Theory	122
	Low Self-Control as the Cause of Criminal Behavior	122
	What Is the Relationship Between Self-Control Theory and Social Bonding Theory?	123
	Testability of Self-Control Theory	124
	Research Indirectly and Directly Testing Self-Control Theory	125
	Policy Implications of Control Theories	129
	Social Bonding Elements in the Social Development Model	129
	Policy Implications of Self-Control Theory	131
	Summary	132
Chapter 7	Labeling Theory
	Introduction	135
	Labeling as a Process of Symbolic Social Interaction	136
	The Label as an Independent Variable in Crime and Deviance	137
	Empirical Evidence on Labeling Theory	140
	Implications of Labeling Theory: Juvenile Diversion Programs	142
	Braithwaite's Reintegrative Shaming Theory	144
	Reintegrative Shaming, Restorative Justice, and Faith-Based Programs	147
	Applications of Restorative Justice	147
	Theory and Philosophy of Restorative Justice: Reintegration and Rehabilitation	150
	Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Programs	153
	The Past and Future of Labeling Theory	155
	Summary	157
Chapter 8	Social Disorganization, Anomie, and Strain Theories
	Introduction	159
	Social Disorganization and the Urban Ecology of Crime and Delinquency	159
	Restatements and Research on Social Disorganization	160
	Classic Anomie/Strain Theories	164
	Merton's Theory of Social Structure and Anomie	164
	Cohen: Status Deprivation and the Delinquent Subculture	166
	Cloward and Ohlin: Differential Opportunity and Delinquent Subcultures	167
	Miller: Focal Concerns of Lower-Class Culture	169
	Research on Classic Anomie/Strain Theories	170
	Are Crime and Delinquency Concentrated in the Lower Class and Minority Groups?	170
	Social Structural Correlates of Crime Rates	172
	Gangs and Delinquent Subcultures	172
	School Dropout and Delinquency	173
	Perceived Discrepancy Between Aspirations and Expectations	174
	Contemporary Anomie/Strain Theories	175
	Messner and Rosenfeld's Institutional-Anomie Theory	175
	Agnew's General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency	179
	Community Projects Based on Theories of Social Disorganization, Anomie, and Delinquent Subcultures	182
	Policy Implications of Contemporary Anomie/Strain Theories	186
	Summary	187
Chapter 9	Conflict Theory
	Introduction	191
	Law Is a Type of Social Control	191
	Consensus and Functionalist Theories of Law	193
	Conflict Theory of Law and Criminal Justice	195
	Empirical Validity of Consensus and Conflict Theories of Law and Criminal Justice	200
	Research on Legislation and Public Opinion on Crime and Criminal Justice	200
	Research on Social Threat and Extra-Legal Variables in Criminal Justice Decision Making	201
	Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior	208
	Empirical Validity of Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior	210
	Policy Implications of Conflict Theory	212
	Summary	213
Chapter 10	Marxist and Critical Theories
	Marxist Theory	217
	Marxist Theory of Law and Criminal Justice	219
	Instrumentalist and Structuralist Marxism	219
	Empirical Adequacy of Marxist Theory of Law and Justice	220
	Marxist Theory of Crime	223
	Bonger: Early Marxist Theory of Crime	224
	Quinney: Class, State, and Crime	224
	Modifications of Marxist Theory	226
	Is Crime the Result of a Capitalist Economy?	229
	Policy Implications of Marxist Theory	231
	Critical Criminology	233
	Critical/Constitutive Criminology: Postmodernism and Beyond	233
	Left Realism	238
	Peacemaking Criminology	240
	Summary	243
Chapter 11	Feminist Theories
	Introduction	245
	Feminist Theories of Criminal Justice	246
	Empirical Validity of Feminist Theories of Criminal Justice	246
	Feminist Theories of Crime	251
	Women's Liberation and Female Crime	253
	Power-Control Theory of Gender and Delinquency	254
	Patriarchal Society and Crime	256
	Masculinities and Crime	258
	Empirical Validity of Feminist Theories of Criminal Behavior	260
	Policy Implications of Feminist Theories	262
	Summary	263
Chapter 12	Integrating Criminological Theories
	Theory Competition Versus Theory Integration	267
	Varieties of Theoretical Integration in Criminology	270
	Conceptual Integration	270
	Akers: Integration by Conceptual Absorption	270
	Cullen and Colvin: Social Support and Coercion	271
	Propositional Integration	273
	Elliott's Integrative Model of Strain, Bonding, and Learning	273
	Krohn's Network Analysis	276
	Thornberry's Interactional Theory	278
	Kaplan's Self-Derogation Theory	278
	Bernard's Unified Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior and Criminal Law	279
	Tittle's Control Balance Theory	280
	Developmental and Life-Course Theories	281
	How Successful Has Theoretical Integration Been in Criminology?	286
	Summary	286
	References	289
	Author Index	343
	Subject Index	351