Polymer Blends: An Introduction Book

1 Introduction 1

1.1 General Overview 1

1.2 Historical Review 3

1.3 Overview of the Book 5

1.4 Definitions 6

2 Fundamentals of Polymer Blends 11

2.1 Thermodynamic Relationships 11

2.1.1 Combinatorial Entropy of Mixing 14

2.1.2 Enthalpy of Mixing 16

2.1.3 Flory-Huggins Theory 17

2.1.4 Equation of State Theories 19

2.2 Phase Behavior 24

2.2.1 Miscible versus Immiscible Blends 24

2.2.2 Spinodal Decomposition and Nucleation and Growth 27

2.3 Solubility Parameter Concepts 30

2.4 Specific Interactions 35

2.4.1 Hydrogen Bonding Interactions 35

2.4.2 Dipole-Dipole Interactions 40

2.4.3 Ion-Dipole and Ion-Ion Interactions 41

2.4.4 Additional Specific Interactions 42

2.5 Mean Field Theory and Intramolecular Repulsion Concepts 42

2.6 Association Model 48

2.7 Interfacial Aspects 49

2.8 Additional Methods of Predicting Polymer Phase Behavior 54

3 Compatibilization Methods 65

3.1 Introduction of Specific Interacting Groups 66

3.2 In-Situ Polymerization Compatibilization 67

3.3 Ternary Polymer Addition (Nonreactive) 70

3.4 Reactive Compatibilization 73

3.4.1 Reactive Extrusion Compatibilization (Single Pass Extrusion) 81

3.5 Interpenetrating Polymer Networks 84

3.6 Crosslinking between Phases 87

3.7 Block Copolymer Addition 88

3.8 Polymer-Polymer Reactions 92

3.9 Additional Methods of Compatibilization 96

4 Types of Polymer Blends 109

4.1 Methods of Blend Preparation/Processing 109

4.2 Elastomer Blends 112

4.3 Elastomer (Low T)g-High Modulus (High Tg) Impact Modified Polymer Blends 118

4.4 Polymer Blends Containing Crystalline Polymers 124

4.4.1 Crystalline Polymer-Amorphous Polymer Blends 124

4.4.2 Crystalline-CrystallinePolymer Blends 130

4.4.3 Isomorphic Polymer Blends 135

4.5 Polyolefin Blends 137

4.6 Engineering Polymer Blends 141

4.6.1 Poly(Phenylene Oxide) Based Blends 141

4.6.2 Aromatic Polycarbonate Based Blends 144

4.6.3 Polyarylate Based Blends 147

4.6.4 Poly(Aryl Ether Ketone) Based Blends 148

4.6.5 Aromatic Polysulfone Based Blends 150

4.6.6 Polyamide Based Blends 150

4.6.7 Polyimide Based Polymer Blends 151

4.6.8 Poly(Phenylene Sulfide) Based Blends 153

4.6.9 Miscellaneous Engineering Polymer Blends 153

4.7 Emulsion Blends 154

4.8 Liquid Crystalline Polymer Blends and Molecular Composites 159

4.8.1 Liquid Crystalline Polymer Blends 159

4.8.2 Molecular Composites 164

4.9 Polymer Blends Containing Block Copolymers 166

4.10 Blends Based on Polystyrene and Styrene Copolymers 172

4.11 Blends Based on PMMA and (Meth)Acrylate Copolymers 179

4.12 Blends Based on PVC 182

4.13 Blends Involving Thermosetting Polymers 187

4.14 Water Soluble Polymer Blends/Polyelectrolyte Complexes 191

4.15 Biodegradable and Natural Polymer Based Blends 198

4.15.1 Biodegradable Polymer Blends 198

4.15.2 Natural Polymer Blends 200

4.16 Miscellaneous Blends 202

4.16.1 Recycled Polymer Blends 202

4.16.2 Conductive Polymer Blends 204

4.16.3 Ternary Polymer Blends 207

4.16.4 Miscellaneous Polymer Blends 209

4.17 Polymer Blend Composites 210

5 Characterization of Polymer Blends 253

5.1 Glass Transition 253

5.2 Dynamic Mechanical Characterization 257

5.3 Calorimetric Methods 262

5.4 Dielectric Characterization 266

5.5 Morphology/Microscopy 271

5.5.1 Optical Microscopy 271

5.5.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 273

5.5.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 276

5.5.4 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 278

5.5.5 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 280

5.5.6 X-Ray Microscopy 280

5.6 Scattering Methods: Light, X-Ray, Neutron 280

5.6.1 Light Scattering 282

5.6.2 X-Ray Scattering 284

5.6.3 Neutron Scattering 286

5.6.4 Neutron Reflectivity 289

5.6.5 Neutron Spin Echo Spectroscopy 289

5.6.6 Other Scattering Methods 289

5.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 290

5.8 Spectroscopic Methods 296

5.8.1 Infrared Spectroscopy 296

5.8.2 UV-Visible Spectroscopy 301

5.8.3 Raman Spectroscopy 301

5.8.4 Fluorescence Spectroscopy: Non-Radiative Energy Transfer and Excimer Fluorescence 302

5.8.5 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy 305

5.9 Vapor Sorption and Solvent Probe Techniques 307

5.10 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy 310

5.11 Characterization of Interfacial Properties 312

5.12 Miscellaneous Characterization Techniques 315

6 Properties of Polymer Blends 333

6.1 Mechanical Properties 333

6.2 Thermal Properties 351

6.2.1 Crystallinity 351

6.2.2 Thermal Stability 358

6.3 Transport Properties 358

6.3.1 Diffusion and Permeability of Gases 358

6.3.2 Transport in Miscible Blends 359

6.3.3 Transport in Phase Separated Blends 360

6.3.4 Thermal Conductivity 364

6.4 Electrical Properties 364

6.5 Rheology and Processing of Polymer Blends 367

6.5.1 Rheology of Phase Separated Blends 370

7 Commercial Applications of Polymer Blends 385

7.1 Commercial Elastomer Blends 385

7.2 Commercial Polyolefin Blends 388

7.3 Commercial Engineering Polymer Blends 390

7.4 Impact Modified Blends 397

7.5 PVC Commercial Blends 399

7.6 Commercial Polymer Blends Comprising Styrenic Polymers 400

7.7 Commercial Polymer Blends Based on Acrylate Containing Polymers 401

7.8 Commercial Applications of Emulsion Blends 401

7.9 Miscellaneous Commercial Blends 403

7.10 Miscellaneous Patent Examples Suggesting Commercial Potential 406

8 Emerging Technology Involving Polymer Blends 415

8.1 Nanotechnology 415

8.1.1 Polymer/Polymer/Nanoparticle Composites 416

8.2 Electronics/Optoelectronics 417

8.2.1 Photovoltaic Applications 418

8.2.2 Light Emitting Diode Applications 420

8.2.3 Electrochromic Applications 421

8.2.4 Additional Electronics Applications 422

8.3 Electrically Conductive Polymers and Blends 423

8.4 Application of Supercritical Fluids in Polymer Blends 425

8.5 Lithium Battery Applications 426

8.6 Fuel Cell Materials Opportunities 428

8.7 Biomaterials/Biotechnology 430

8.8 Miscellaneous Applications of Polymer Blend Technology in Emerging Technologies 433

Appendix 439

Appendix 1 439

Appendix 2 444

Appendix 3 445

Index 451