Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Approach Book

Foreword   David P. Farrington     xiv
Preface     xv
Acknowledgments     xvii
Criminology, Crime, And Criminal Law     1
What Is Criminology?     2
What Is Crime?     3
Crime as a Moving Target     3
Crime as a Subcategory of Social Harms     5
Beyond Social Construction: The Stationary Core Crimes     6
Focus On...Mala in Se or Mala Prohibita? The Cannibal and His Willing Victim     7
Victimful and Victimless Crimes     7
The Felony-Misdemeanor Distinction     8
Criminality     9
The Legal Making of a Criminal     10
Basic Principles of U.S. Criminal Law     10
What Constitutes a Crime?     10
An Excursion Through the U.S. Criminal Justice System     12
The Role of Theory in Criminology     15
What Is Theory?     16
How to Think About Theories     17
Ideology in Criminological Theory     20
Summary     21
Exercises and Discussion Questions     22
Key Words     24
Measuring Crime And Criminal Behavior     26
Categorizing and Measuring Crime and Criminal Behavior     27
The Uniform Crime Reports: Counting Crime Officially     27
NIBRS: The "New and Improved" UCR     34
Crime Victimization Survey Data     34
Self-Reported Crime Surveys     39
The Dark Figure of Crime Revisited     40
What Can We Conclude About the Three Main Measures of Crime in the United States?     42
Focus On...The Crime Problem or the Criminality Problem?     43
The Financial Cost of Crime     43
Interpreting Crime Trends     44
Focus On...Is the United States Hard or Soft on Crime?     48
Summary     48
Exercises and Discussion Questions     50
Key Words     50
The Early Schools Of Criminology And Modern Counterparts     53
The Classical Scholars     54
Preclassical Notions of Crime and Criminals     54
The Legacy of the Classical School     57
The Rise of Positivism     57
What Is Positivism?     57
A Bridge Between the Classical and Positivist Schools     58
Cartographic Criminology     58
Biological Positivism: Cesare Lombroso and the Born Criminal     59
Focus On...Lombrosoism Before and After Lombroso     61
Raffael Garofalo: Natural Crime and Offender Peculiarities     63
Enrico Ferri and Social Defense     63
Charles Goring's Assault on Lombroso     64
The Legacy of Positivism     64
Neoclassicism: Rational Choice Theory     65
Cohen and Felson's Routine Activities Theory and Victimization     66
Deterrence and Choice: Pain Versus Gain     67
Evaluation of Neoclassical Theories     70
Connecting Criminological Theory and Social Policy     71
Policy and Prevention: Implications of Neoclassical Theories     72
Summary     74
Exercises and Discussion Questions     76
Key Words     76
Social Structural Theories     79
The Social Structural Tradition     80
Sociological Positivism     81
Durkheim, Modernization, and Anomie     81
The Chicago School of Ecology     83
Strain Theory: Robert Merton's Extension of Anomie Theory     84
Focus On . . . People Versus Places: Do Neighborhoods Matter?     88
Institutional Anomie Theory     90
Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory     93
Subcultural Theories     94
Albert Cohen and Status Frustration     94
Cloward and Ohlin's Opportunity Structure Theory     94
Walter Miller's Theory of Focal Concerns     97
Focus On...Does Poverty Cause Crime, or Does Crime Cause Poverty?     98
Youth Gangs     99
The Increasing Prevalence of Youth Gangs     99
Why Do Young People Join Gangs?     100
Girls in Gangs     101
Evaluation of Social Structural Theories     102
Policy and Prevention: Implications of Social Structural Theories     104
Summary     107
Exercises and Discussion Questions     108
Key Words     109
Social Process Theories     112
The Social Process Tradition     113
Gabriel Tarde and the Laws of Imitation     113
Differential Association Theory     114
Ronald Akers's Social Learning Theory     116
Social Control Theories     118
Walter Reckless's Containment Theory     119
Focus On...Self-Esteem and Crime     119
Travis Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory     120
From Social to Self-Control: Gottfredson and Hirschi's Low Self-Control Theory     123
Labeling Theory: The Irony of Social Reaction     125
Primary and Secondary Deviance     126
Extending Labeling Theory      127
Sykes and Matza's Neutralization Theory     128
Evaluation of Social Process Theories     130
Policy and Prevention: Implications of Social Process Theories     133
Summary     136
Exercises and Discussion Questions     137
Key Words     138
Critical Theories: Marxist, Conflict, And Feminist     141
The Conflict Perspective of Society     142
Karl Marx and Revolution     143
Marx and Engels on Crime     143
Willem Bonger: The First Marxist Criminologist     144
Modern Marxist Criminology     145
Left Realism-Taking Crime Seriously     146
Conflict Theory: Max Weber, Power, and Conflict     146
From Individual Violators to Group Struggles     147
The Social Reality of Crime     148
Postmodernist Theory     149
Focus On...The Supreme Court and Class Conflict     150
Peacemaking Criminology     151
Feminist Criminology     153
The Generalizability Problem     154
The Gender Ratio Problem     155
The Masculinization and Emancipation Hypotheses: Adler and Simon     155
Female-Centered Theory: Criminalizing Girls' Survival and Victim-Precipitated Homicide     257
Radical Feminist Explanations     158
Evaluation of Critical Theories     160
Policy and Prevention: Implications of Critical Theories     162
Summary     163
Exercises and Discussion Questions     165
Key Words     165
Psychosocial Theories: Individual Traits And Criminal Behavior     169
Modern Psychology and Intelligence     170
Intelligence, Genes, and the Environment     171
The IQ-Crime Connection     171
Intellectual Imbalance     172
Explaining the IQ-Offending Relationship     172
IQ and School Performance     173
Focus On...The Impact of High and Low IQ on Life Outcomes     173
The Role of Temperament     174
Personality: In the Beginning Was Freud     175
Personality Traits Associated With Criminal Behavior     176
Classical Conditioning and Conscience     179
Modern Psychosocial Theories     182
Arousal Theory     182
Wilson and Herrnstein's Net Advantage Theory     184
Glen Walters's Lifestyle Theory     184
The Antisocial Personalities     186
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)      187
What Causes Psychopathy?     488
Psychopathy and the Social Emotions     188
Environmental Considerations     189
Evaluation of the Psychosocial Perspective     190
Policy and Prevention: Implications of Psychosocial Theories     193
Summary     193
Exercises and Discussion Questions     195
Key Words     196
Biosocial Approaches     199
Behavior Genetics     200
What Are Genes?     200
How Do Behavior Geneticists Do Research on Criminal Behavior?     201
The Twin Method     201
The Adoption Method     202
Gene-Environment Interaction and Correlation     202
Behavior Genetics and Criminal Behavior     203
Focus On...Gene-Environment Interaction: MAO, Abuse/Neglect, and Crime     204
The Modest Heritability of Criminality     205
Evolutionary Psychology     206
Evolution by Natural Selection     206
Thinking Evolutionarily Direct Versus Indirect Motivation and the Naturalistic Fallacy     207
The Evolution of Criminal Behavior: Crime Is Normal     207
Cooperation Creates Niches for Cheats     208
The Evolution of Criminal Traits      209
The Neurohormonal Sciences     211
Some Basic Concepts and Terminology     211
Softwiring the Brain     213
Bonding, Attachment, and the Brain     215
Abuse, Neglect, and the Developing Brain     215
The Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory     215
Reward Dominance Theory and Criminal Behavior     216
Prefrontal Dysfunction (PFD) Theory and Criminal Behavior     217
Evaluation of the Biosocial Perspective     217
Policy and Prevention: Implications of Biosocial Theories     219
Summary     220
Exercises and Discussion Questions     221
Key Words     222
Developmental Theories: From Delinquency To Crime To Desistance     226
Juvenile Delinquency     227
The Extent of Delinquency     228
Puberty, Adolescence, and Change     229
Patterns of Serious Delinquency     232
Risk and Protective Factors for Serious Delinquency     232
Focus On...What Role Do Genes Play in Juvenile Delinquency?     233
ADHD and CD     236
Major Developmental Theories     238
Robert Agnew's General or "Super Traits" Theory     238
Sampson and Laub's Age-Graded Developmental Theory     239
David Farrington's Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP) Theory     242
Terrie Moffitt's Dual-Pathway Developmental Theory     243
Desisting     245
What About Adolescents Who Abstain From Delinquency Altogether?     246
Evaluation of Developmental Theories     247
Policy and Prevention: Implications of Developmental Theories     248
Summary     250
Exercises and Discussion Questions     251
Key Words     252
Altered Minds And Crime: Alcohol, Drugs, And Mental Illness     256
The Scope of the Alcohol/Crime Problem     257
The Direct Effects of Alcohol on Behavior     257
Contextual Factors     257
Alcoholism: Type I and Type II     260
Illegal Drugs and Crime     262
The Extent of the Illicit Drug Problem     262
Drug Addiction     254
Drug Classification     265
The Drugs/Violence Link     268
What Causes Drug Abuse?     272
Does Drug Abuse Cause Crime?     273
Mental Disorders and Crime     273
Focus On...Treatment for Substance Abuse in the Criminal Justice System     275
Causality: The Diathesis/Stress Model     278
Focus On...Portrait of a Schizophrenic     279
The Link Between Mental Illness and Crime     280
Summary     282
Exercises and Discussion Questions     283
Key Words     283
Crimes of Violence     287
Murder     288
Homicide Trends in the United States in the 20th Century     290
International Comparisons     292
Categories of Murder     293
Stranger, Acquaintance, Family Member: Who Kills Whom?     294
Other Violent Crimes     296
Rape and Rapists     296
Some Facts About Rape     297
Focus On...Characteristics of Rapists     298
Theories of Rape     299
Robbery and Robbers     303
The Robbers     304
Aggravated Assault     305
Explaining Violence Sociologically: The Subculture of Violence Thesis     306
Hormones, Brains, and Violence     308
Evolutionary Considerations: What Is Violence For?     310
Focus On...Evolutionary Considerations of Inequality and Violence     311
Summary     312
Exercises and Discussion Questions     313
Key Words      313
Serial, Mass, and Spree Murder     317
What Is Multiple Murder?     317
Mass and Spree Murder     318
Serial Murder     320
The Extent of the Problem     323
A Typology of Serial Killers     323
Race and Multiple Murder     325
Female Serial Killers     327
Multiple Murder Overseas     328
Focus On...Recent Long-Term Serial Killers: The Green River and BTK Cases     332
Theories About the Causes of Serial Killing     333
An Integrated Theory     336
Law Enforcement's Response to Serial Killing     336
Offender Profiling     336
Crime Scene Analysis     337
The Linkage Blindness Problem     337
Focus On...The First Serial Killer Profile: Jack the Ripper     338
Summary     338
Exercises and Discussion Questions     340
Key Words     342
Terrorism and Terrorists     343
Terrorism Defined     344
Why Terrorism?     344
Is There a Difference Between Terrorists and Freedom Fighters?     345
The Extent of Terrorism     347
Terrorism and Common Crime     348
Some Important Terrorist Groups     350
al-Qaeda     351
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)     352
Hizballah     353
Focus On...The Irish Republican Army (IRA) : A Decommissioned Group?     353
Terrorism in the United States     355
Ideological: Left Wing     356
Ideological Right Wing     356
Special-Issue Domestic Terrorism     357
Theories About the Causes of Terrorism     357
Is There a Terrorist Personality?     358
Becoming a Terrorist     360
Law Enforcement Response and Government Policy     361
Summary     365
Exercises and Discussion Questions     365
Key Words     366
Property And Public Order Crime     369
Larceny-Theft     371
Types of Larceny-Theft     371
Burglary     372
Burglars and Their Motives     374
Burglary and Gender     375
Choosing Burglary Targets     375
Disposing of the Loot     376
Motor Vehicle Theft     377
Motor Vehicle Theft for Fun and Profit     378
Focus On...Carjacking: MV Theft With an Attitude     379
Arson      360
Crimes of Guile and Deceit     381
Embezzlement     382
Fraud     382
Forgery     383
Counterfeiting     383
Cybercrime: Oh What a Tangled World Wide Web We Weave     383
Identity Theft     384
Focus On...Phishing: "If It's Too Good to Be True..."     385
Denial of Service Attack: Virtual Kidnapping and Extortion     386
Who Are the Hackers?     386
Software Piracy     386
Internet Child Pornography and Cyberseduction     387
Public-Order Offenses     388
Prostitution and Commercialized Vice     389
Other Sex Offenses     390
Driving Under the Influence     391
Gambling     392
Summary     393
Exercises and Discussion Questions     394
Key Words     394
White-Collar And Organized Crime     398
The Concept of White-Collar Crime     399
How Much White-Collar Crime Is There?     399
Occupational Crime     400
Professional Occupational Crime     401
Causes of Occupational White-Collar Crime: Are They Different?     401
Corporate Crime      402
The S & L Scandal: The Best Way to Rob a Bank Is to Own One     402
The Enron Scandal: Crooks Cooking Books     403
Focus On...Crimes of America's Rich and Famous in History     404
Theories About the Causes of Corporate Crime     405
Law Enforcement Response to Corporate Crime     407
Organized Crime     409
What Is Organized Crime?     409
Focus On...The Mafia: Sicilian Origins and History     412
Organized Crime in the United States     413
Reaffirming the Existence of Organized Crime     414
The Russian "Mafiya"     416
The Japanese Yakuza     417
Theories About the Causes of Organized Crime     418
Law Enforcement's Response to Organized Crime     420
Summary     422
Exercises and Discussion Questions     424
Key Words     424
Victimology: Exploring The Experience Of Victimization     427
The Emergence of Victimology     428
Who Gets Victimized?     428
Victimization in the Workplace and School     429
Child Molestation: Who Gets Victimized?     430
Victimization Theories     432
Victim Precipitation Theory      433
Routine Activities/Lifestyle Theory     434
Is Victimology "Blaming the Victim"?     436
The Consequences of Victimization     437
Focus On...A Case of Cybervictimization and Its Consequences     438
Victimization and the Criminal Justice System     439
Victim Compensation and Restitution     440
Focus On...Crime Victims' Bill of Rights     441
Victim-Offender Reconciliation Programs (VORPS)     441
Focus On...Victims' Opinions of the Importance of Victims' Rights     442
Summary     443
Exercises and Discussion Questions     443
Key Words     444
Glossary     446
Photo Credits     463
Index     465
About the Authors     495