Hydrogen Energy: Challenges and Prospects Book

Abbreviations, Symbols and Units Used in Text     xix
Glossary of Terms     xxv
Conversion Factors for Units and Useful Quantities     xxxvi
Why Hydrogen Energy?     1
Security of Energy Supplies     7
Climate Change (Global Warming)     15
Atmospheric Pollution     21
Electricity Generation     24
Hydrogen as a Fuel     28
A Note of Caution     32
References     32
Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels and Biomass     34
Present and Projected Uses for Hydrogen     35
Natural Gas     38
Reforming of Natural Gas     39
Gas Separation Processes     42
Characteristics of Steam Reforming of Methane     44
Solar-Thermal Reforming     45
Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons     46
Other Processes     46
Autothermal Reforming     46
Sorbent-enhanced Reforming     47
Plasma Reforming     47
Membrane Developments for Gas Separation     48
Membrane Types     48
Membrane Reactors     51
Coal and Other Fuels     52
Gasification Technology     53
Entrained-flow Gasifier     55
Moving-bed Gasifier     55
Fluidized-bed Gasifier     55
Combined-cycle Processes     57
FutureGen Project     59
Biomass     61
Dry Biomass     61
Wet Biomass     64
Basic Research Needs     65
References     66
Carbon Sequestration     67
The Scale of Carbon Sequestration     68
Capture of Carbon Dioxide     70
Post-combustion Capture     70
Oxy-fuel Combustion     72
Chemical Looping Combustion     73
Pre-combustion Capture     74
Storage Options     76
Geological Storage     77
Enhanced Oil Recovery     78
Depleted Oil and Gas Fields     81
Saline Aquifers     81
Coal Seams     84
Oil or Gas Shales     87
Basalts     88
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide     88
Salt Caverns     88
Overall Prospects     89
Monitoring and Verification     90
Mineral Carbonation     91
Ocean Storage     92
Direct Approach      93
Indirect Approach     97
Atmosphere-Ocean Equilibrium     98
Biological Storage     98
Re-use of Carbon Dioxide     99
Transport to Storage Site     100
Institutional Issues     101
The Way Ahead     103
References     104
Hydrogen from Water     106
Electrolysis     107
Electrolyzers     112
Water Splitting with Solar Energy     120
Photovoltaic Cells     120
Solar-Thermal Process     124
Photo-electrochemical Cells     125
Dye-sensitized Solar Cells     126
Direct Hydrogen Production     127
Tandem Cells     128
Photo-biochemical Cells     134
Thermochemical Hydrogen Production     136
Sulfur-Iodine Cycle     138
Westinghouse Cycle     139
Sulfur-Ammonia Cycle     140
Metal Oxide Cycles     141
Concluding Remarks     142
References     144
Hydrogen Distribution and Storage     146
Strategic Considerations     146
Distribution and Bulk Storage of Gaseous Hydrogen     149
Gas Cylinders     150
Pipelines     155
Large-scale Storage     157
Liquid Hydrogen     158
Metal Hydrides     161
Chemical and Related Storage     166
Simple Hydrogen-bearing Chemicals     167
Complex Chemical Hydrides     169
Nanostructured Materials     172
Hydrogen Storage on Road Vehicles     176
References     178
Fuel Cells     179
Fuel Cell History     179
Why Fuel Cells?     182
Fuel Cell Operation     185
Types of Fuel Cell: Low-to-Medium Temperature     190
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)     190
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)     195
Direct Borohydride Fuel Cell (DBFC)     197
Proton-exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)     198
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)     203
Miniature Fuel Cells     206
Types of Fuel Cell: High Temperature     210
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)     210
Internal Reforming     215
Direct Carbon Fuel Cell (DCFC)     216
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)     216
Fuel Cell Efficiencies     222
Applications for Fuel Cells     225
Large Stationary Power Generation     225
Small Stationary Power Generation     225
Mobile Power     226
Portable Power     226
Prognosis for Fuel Cells     226
References     229
Hydrogen-fuelled Transportation     230
Conventional Vehicles and Fuels     231
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)     234
Classification of Hybrid Electric Vehicles     234
Cars     236
Buses     237
Batteries     237
Conventional versus Hybrid Vehicles     239
'Green' Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines     239
Hydrogen-fuelled Internal Combustion Engines     241
Road Vehicles     241
Aircraft     244
Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs)     247
Buses     250
Delivery Vehicles     256
Cars (Automobiles)     256
Other Vehicles     264
Submarines     266
Hydrogen Highways     266
Efficiency Calculations and Fuel Consumption     269
References     273
Hydrogen Energy: The Future?     275
World-wide Energy Problems     275
Security of Energy Supply     276
Climate Change     277
Hydrogen Energy: The Challenges     279
Production     279
Distribution and Storage     281
Fuel Cells     282
The Role of Government     284
Energy Conservation Policies     284
Energy Diversification     286
Electricity     286
Transportation     288
Carbon Emissions     290
Renewable Energy     291
Hydrogen Energy: The Prospects     292
Subject Index     296