Parmenides and Plato's Late Philosophy Translation of and Commentary on the Parmenides With ... Book

The Psychology Of William James

In 1890, following a twelve-year effort, the American philosopher and psychologist William James published his 1200-page "Principles of Psychology". The "Principles" is a grand work which a group of distinguished psychologists described in 1969 as "the most literate, most provocative, and at the same time the most intelligent book on psychology that has ever appeared in English on any other language." The "Principles" proved greatly influential on many philosophers, notably Edmund Husserl and Ludwig Wittgenstein, as well as on psychologists. Because of the length and depth of the "Principles", it proved unsuitable for classroom use by undergraduates. Thus, working rapidly in 1891, William James substantially revised and abridged his masterpiece, resulting in his "Psychology: Briefer Course" published in 1892. For many years, this book was a standard textbook in psychology, and it remains eminently worth reading as an introduction to the discipline and to James's own thought.

The "Psychology" is about one-third the length of the "Principles." It consists of approximately 40 percent new material, most of which is in the opening chapters of the book on sensation and on anatomy and physiology. The remainder of the book is an abridgment of the earlier work, with philosophical discussions, quotations from other authors, and polemical material deleted or sharply curtailed.

The "Psychology" is an accessible and endlessly fascinating book on at least three levels: first, for its insight into the science of psychology; second for the suggestive character of its discussion of the relationship between psychology (and the natural sciences)on the one hand and philosophy and religion on the other hand; third, for the eloquence of James's writing and for his passion for the ethical and active life. I will say a short word in the following three paragraphs about each of these.

At the outset, James defines psychology as "the description and explanation of states of consciousness as such." He also finds that psychology and mental activity are neurologically and physiologically based. In other words, as James writes, "the immediate condition of a state of consciousness is an activity of some sort in the cerebral hemispheres." An illustration of the physiological basis of James work is his theory of the emotions, called the James-Lange theory, in which he argued that human feelings and emotions were rooted in actions and efforts rather than, is is still frequently supposed, the other way round. Everything that James writes has an empirical, physiological cast; and yet his work is far from reductionist. For all its emphasis on physiology, James analysis of the mind begins in chapters 9 and 10 with his discussions of the "stream of consciousness" and of the nature of the "self". He uses what he describes as the analytical method to analyze the fact of consciousness into habit, emotion, instinct, reasoning, attention, and the like. He does not take a Lockean/Humean approach by attempting to derive consciousness by compounding from simple sensation.

James distinguishes the scientific approach of psychology from the questions of metaphysics of philosophy while showing their interrelations. Scientific studies are partial and rely upon evidence, while metaphysics involves an attempt to think globally. With an appealing humility, James stresses how little is fundamentally known about psychology, an observation that may still hold true today. James emphasizes the limited reach of human cognition and the selective character of all human perception. In a memorable passage, he describes the mind's attempt to abstract from reality, which he characterizes as "one big blooming buzzing Confusion." I found a Kantian tendency in much of what James says about human knowledge in the Psychology. James also emphasizes, as did Kant, the deterministic character of scientific observation and study. But James does not find the physiological character of human effort necessarily inconsistent with human free will or with the power of the individual with effort to control his or her destiny.

With all its scientific learning, the Psychology has an ethical, exhortatory tone as befitting its proposed use by students. James can be a magnificently inspiring writer. The Psychology concludes with a discussion of the will. James writes about the need to hold to the possibility of the free will in order to make an individual's life meaningful and significant. He writes at the conclusion of his chapter on the will:

"Thus not only our morality but our religion, so far as the latter is deliberate, depend on the effort which we can make. "Will you or won't you have it so?" is the most probing question we are ever asked; we are asked it every hour of the day, and about the largest as well as the smallest, the most theoretical as well as the most practical, things. we answer by consents or non-consents and not by words. What wonder that these dumb responses should seem our deepest organs of communication with the nature of things! What wonder if the effort demanded by them be the measure of our worth as men! What wonder if the amount which we accord of it were the one strictly underived and original contribution which we make to the world!"

The edition of the "Psychology" I am reviewing here is the authoritative edition of "The Works of William James" published by Harvard University Press. Certain other editions in print omit the early chapters on sensation and should be avoided. The best source of this work for the interested reader is in volume 1 of the writings of William James, 1879-1899 published by the Library of America. It includes the Harvard text of the Principles as well as several other works of James and sells at an economical price.

Robin Friedman