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| Introduction: Explaining Values and Valuation | 1 | |
| 1 | Explaining Values and Valuation: A Question That Has Inspired Many Theories | 21 |
| 1.1 | The Diversity and Empirical Inefficiency of Value Theories | 21 |
| 1.2 | Munchhausen's Trilemma | 22 |
| 1.3 | Munchhausen's Trilemma and Scientific Knowledge | 23 |
| 1.4 | Munchhausen's Trilemma and the Explanation of Norms and Values | 26 |
| 1.5 | "Fideist" Theories | 28 |
| 1.6 | Skeptical Theories | 30 |
| 1.7 | Rational Theories | 40 |
| 1.8 | Normative and Positive Beliefs | 46 |
| 1.9 | The Trilemma and Moral Life | 53 |
| 2 | Rational Theories: Limits of the "Rational Choice Model" | 57 |
| 2.1 | The Attractiveness of Rational Choice Theory (RCT) | 57 |
| 2.2 | Whether RCT is General | 57 |
| 2.3 | Alternative Way | 62 |
| 2.4 | Two Examples from Tocqueville | 63 |
| 2.5 | "Cognitive Rationality" | 65 |
| 2.6 | A Special Case of Utmost Relevance | 66 |
| 2.7 | RCT: A Particular Case of a More General Model | 66 |
| 3 | Relatives vs. Naturalistic Theories: Their Interest and Limits | 71 |
| 3.1 | That Value Relativism is Widespread | 71 |
| 3.2 | Do We Need to Accept These Views and Sociologists and as People? | 74 |
| 3.3 | The Naturalistic Reaction | 75 |
| 3.4 | The Reasons for Moral Convictions | 79 |
| 3.5 | Communitarianism Revisited | 87 |
| 4 | A Seminal and Difficult Notion: "Axiological Rationality" | 93 |
| 4.1 | Weber Often Ill-Understood | 94 |
| 4.2 | The Methodological Principles of Weber's Sociology | 97 |
| 4.3 | Why These Principles? | 100 |
| 4.4 | Moral Feelings | 102 |
| 4.5 | "Gesinnungsethik" and "Verantwortungsethik" | 110 |
| 4.6 | Back to Kant? | 111 |
| 5 | Generalizing the "Rational Choice Model" into a Cognitivism Model | 119 |
| 5.1 | Explaining Collective Beliefs: The "Cognitivism" Model | 121 |
| 5.2 | Type 2 Beliefs: Examples from Cognitive Psychology | 125 |
| 5.3 | Type 3 Beliefs: Examples from the Sociology of Knowledge | 133 |
| 5.4 | Type 3 Beliefs: Examples from the Sociology of Norms and Values | 139 |
| 5.5 | The Need for a Non-Utilitarian Notion of Rationality | 142 |
| 6 | The Cognitivism Model Applied to the Analysis of the Feelings of Justice | 147 |
| 6.1 | Philosophy and Sociology on Axiological Feelings | 147 |
| 6.2 | A Cognitivism Theory of Axiological Feelings | 148 |
| 6.3 | Smith's Example | 152 |
| 6.4 | Lessons from Smith's Example | 153 |
| 6.5 | Application of the Model to Two Examples | 155 |
| 6.6 | Checking the Importance of Contextual Effects | 167 |
| 6.7 | Which Criteria of Fairness, Legitimacy, Etc.? | 172 |
| 6.8 | The Universal and Contextual Dimensions of Axiological Feelings and Justice Feelings in Particular | 175 |
| 6.9 | Contextual Variations of Tolerance to Inequalities | 176 |
| 6.10 | Beyond Kantian, Utilitarian, and Contractualist Theories | 178 |
| 7 | The Cognitivist Model Applied to the Analysis of Public Opinion | 181 |
| 7.1 | A Free Interpretation of the Metaphor of the "Impartial Spectator" | 181 |
| 7.2 | Effects of Social Affiliations: Special Interests, Group Interests, and Role Interests | 185 |
| 7.3 | Effects of Community Affiliations | 188 |
| 7.4 | Effects of Position | 193 |
| 7.5 | Organizations and People | 195 |
| 7.6 | Cognitive Effects | 195 |
| 7.7 | Axiological Effects | 198 |
| 7.8 | Scheler Effects | 199 |
| 7.9 | Combined Effects | 200 |
| 7.10 | Tocqueville-Kuran Effects | 202 |
| 7.11 | The Influence of the Impartial Spectator | 205 |
| 7.12 | Public Opinion and the Rationalization of Social Life | 210 |
| References | 215 | |
| Index | 221 |
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David Wilson
reviewed The Origin of Values: Essays in the Sociology and Philosophy of Beliefs on May 19, 2014
The Origin of Values
If there is an aspect to contemporary metaethics whose prospects are especially hopeless and unconvincing, and if you want to read a book that can help you to make a conclusion about the antecedent of that opening conditional, then you should read this book. Shafer-Landau's defense of moral realism is as flaccid as the moral realism he tries to defend. The many deep wounds I received from reading this book are still too fresh to allow me to face them in too much detail here, but the primary grounds for his defense of the truth of moral realism are by way of an analogy to the contemporary philosophy of mind; Shafer-Landau's real moral properties are ontologically analogous to consciousness. And if that dubious enterprise isn't enough to fill you with the kind of total despair that you've been searching for, then by all means, dive into this sea of argumentative retreat yourself, for I can assure you that your thirst can be slaked many times over in these 302 pages of delicate and sophisticated maneuvering. The two most prominently disagreeable features of this book, for me, are these. First, aware of the profound (if not even disturbing, I would add) difficulties that arguing in favor of moral realism's realism entails, Shafer-Landau opts for the far less satisfying strategy of insisting on the difficulties of proving moral realism false. Did you hear that? Instead of squarely arguing for the truth of his moral beliefs, much of the book is devoted to undermining arguments against moral realism: thus, moral realism could be true because it's hard to prove that it's false. One wonders: why doesn't he simply face the facts? Second, although he says early on "that [he] came to these views by way of argument, rather than (as is usual) by way of rationalizing preexisting convictions..." (8-9), don't believe him. The entire work is an obvious rationalization of preexisting convictions. This book is a manifest example of the theological nature of (at least) some of modern philosophy. Nietzsche's conviction that modern philosophy has'despite its profession to the contrary'inherited basic elements of Christianity will find strong support in this book.
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