Landscape Planning: Environmental Applications Book

Preface

An Introduction to the Book, the Field, and Some Perspectives 1

0.1 Opening Statement 2

0.2 Background Concept 2

0.3 Content and Organization 3

0.4 Landscape Planning, Environmentalism, and Environmental Planning 4

0.5 The Spatial Context: Sites and Regions 5

0.6 Finding the Appropriate Scale 5

0.7 The Sustainable Systems Dilemma 7

0.8 Case Study: Building Sustainable Communities on Sustainable Landscape Systems 9

0.9 Selected References for Further Reading 10

Chapter 1 Landscape Planning: Roots, Problems, and Content 13

1.1 Introduction: Roots 14

1.2 The Problem: Change and Impact 17

1.3 The Purpose of Planning 19

1.4 Planning Realms: Decision Making, Technical, and Design 19

1.5 Environmental Impact Assessment 20

1.6 Areas of Activity in Landscape Planning 22

1.7 Methods and Techniques 27

1.8 Environmental Ordinances Bylaws 28

1.9 The Planning Professions and Participating Fields 29

1.10 Case Study: Adapting the EIS to Issues of Natural Gas Drilling in New York State 31

1.11 Selected References for Further Reading 34

Chapter 2 The Physiographic Framework of the United States and Canada 35

2.1 Introduction 36

2.2 The Physiographic Framework 36

2.3 The Canadian Shield 39

2.4 The Appalachian Region 42

2.5 The Interior Highlands 46

2.6 The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain 47

2.7 The Interior Plains 51

2.8 The Rocky Mountain Region 55

2.9 The Intermontane Region 57

2.10 The Pacific Mountain Region 60

2.11 The Yukon and Coastal Arctic Region 63

2.12 Selected References for Further Reading 64

Chapter 3 Landscape Form and Function in Planning and Design 67

3.1 Introduction 68

3.2 Essential Systems and Processes of the Landscape 68

3.3 The Nature of Landscape Change 70

3.4 The Concept of Conditional Stability 72

3.5 Perspectives on site as Landscape 73

3.6 Dimensions of the Site as Dynamic Space 74

3.7 Sources of Environmental Data for Site Planning 77

3.8 Theoretical Perspectives on Landscape 79

3.9 Case Study: Dams, Sustaining streamflow, and Landscape Equilibria: An Illustration from Fossil Greek, Arizona 85

3.10 Selected References for Further Reading 89

Chapter 4 Topography, Slopes, and Land Use Planning 91

4.1 Introduction 92

4.2 The Nature of Slope Problems 92

4.3 Building Slope Maps for Land Use Planning 94

4.4 Interpreting Slope Steepness and Form 97

4.5 Assessing Slopes for Stability 100

4.6 Applications to Community Planning 104

4.7 Why Slope Maps May Not Work in Some Areas 106

4.8 Case Study: Slope as a Growth-Control Tool in Community Planning 108

4.9 Selected References for Further Reading 109

Chapter 5 Assessing Soil for Land Use Planning and Waste Disposal 111

5.1 Introduction 112

5.2 Soil Composition 112

5.3 Soil Texture 113

5.4 Soil Moisture and Drainage 114

5.5 Soil, Landforms, and Topography 116

5.6 Applications to Land Planning 120

5.7 Planning Considerations in Solid Waste Disposal 122

5.8 Hazardous Waste Regulation and Disposal 126

5.9 Case Study: Mapping Soil at the Site Scale for Private Development 127

5.10 Selected References for Further Reading 129

Chapter 6 Site, Soils, and Wastewater Disposal Systems 131

6.1 Introduction 132

6.2 The Soil-Absorption System 132

6.3 Environmental Impact and System Design 135

6.4 Mapping Soil Suitability for On-Site Disposal 136

6.5 Alternatives to Standard SAS 139

6.6 Small-Flow Wetland Systems 142

6.7 Case Study: Land Use Implications of On-Site Wastewater Treatment Technologies: Lessons from the Great Lakes Region 143

6.8 Selected References for Further Reading 146

Chapter 7 Groundwater Systems, Land Use Planning, and Aquifer Protection 147

7.1 Introduction 148

7.2 Groundwater Sources and Features 148

7.3 Groundwater as a Flow System 151

7.4 Groundwater Withdrawal and Aquifer Impact 155

7.5 Sources of Groundwater Contamination 157

7.6 Applications to Landscape Planning and Design 158

7.7 Community Wellhead Protection 162

7.8 Case Study: GIS and the Management of Groundwater Contamination 163

7.9 Selected References for Further Reading 165

Chapter 8 Runoff and Stormwater Management in a Changing Landscape 167

8.1 Introduction 168

8.2 Runoff as Overland Flow 168

8.3 Computing Runoff from a Small Watershed 170

8.4 Using the Rational Method 174

8.5 Other Runoff Models and Concepts 175

8.6 Trends in Stormwater Discharge 177

8.7 Stormwater Mitigation in Development Planning and Design 179

8.8 The Concept of Performance 184

8.9 Comprehensive Water Management Planning 185

8.10 Case Study: A Case for Green Infrastructure in Stormwater Management, Surrey, British Columbia 186

8.11 Selected References for Further Reading 188

Chapter 9 Watersheds, Drainage Nets, and Land Use Planning 191

9.1 Introduction 192

9.2 The Organization of Networks and Basins 192

9.3 Mapping the Drainage Basin 195

9.4 Land Use Alterations of Small Drainage Basins 196

9.5 Watershed Planning and Management Considerations 199

9.6 Framing a Plan for the Small Drainage Basin 203

9.7 Case Study: Watershed Concepts Applied to Industrial Site Management, Saltillo, Mexico 204

9.8 Selected References for Further Reading 208

Chapter 10 Streamflow, Floodplains, Flood Hazard, and Land Use Planning 209

10.1 Introduction 210

10.2 Sources of Streamflow 210

10.3 Methods of Forecasting Streamflow 213

10.4 The Size and Shape of Valleys and Floodplains 217

10.5 Applications to Land Planning and Design 219

10.6 Small Basin Floodplain Mapping 222

10.7 Case Study: Flood Risk and the Impacts of Fire in a Small Forested Watershed, Northern Arizona 224

10.8 Selected References for Further Reading 227

Chapter 11 Water Quality and Runoff Considerations in Landscape Management 229

11.1 Introduction 230

11.2 Pollution Types, Sources, and Measurement 230

11.3 Stormwater, Land Use, and Water Quality 233

11.4 Water Quality Mitigation on Land 235

11.5 Eutrophication of Waterbodies 238

11.6 Lake Nutrient Loading and Land Use 241

11.7 Planning for Water Quality Management in Small Watersheds 244

11.8 Case Study: Sediment and Nutrient Trapping Efficiency of a Constructed Wetland Near Delavan Lake, Wisconsin 248

11.9 Selected References for Further Reading 250

Chapter 12 Soil Erosion, Stream Sedimentation, and Landscape Management 253

12.1 Introduction 254

12.2 Soil Erosion, Bioclimate, and Land Use 254

12.3 The Soil Erosion-Sediment Transport System 257

12.4 Principal Factors Influencing Soil Erosion 260

12.5 Computing Soil Erosion from Runoff 262

12.6 Applications to Landscape Planning and Management 265

12.7 Watershed Management Considerations 268

12.8 Case Study: Erosion and Sediment Control on a Creek Restoration project, South Lake Tahoe, California 271

12.9 Selected References for Further Reading 273

Chapter 13 Best Management Practices, Local Watersheds, and Development Sites 275

13.1 Introduction 276

13.2 The Watershed Runoff System and BMP Opportunities 276

13.3 The Site-Scale Stormwater System 279

13.4 Production BMPs 280

13.5 Site Removal Release BMPs 283

13.6 Delivery BMPs 284

13.7 An Approach to BMP Planning 284

13.8 Toward Green Infrastructure 286

13.9 Case Study: Making the Shift to On-Site BMPs: Rainwater Management on a Small Urban Site 288

13.10 Selected References for Further Reading 291

Chapter 14 The Riparian Landscape: Streams, Channel Forms, and Valley Floors 293

14.1 Introduction 294

14.2 Hydraulic Behavior of Streams 294

14.3 Stream Erosion and Sediment Transport 296

14.4 Channel Dynamics and Patterns 298

14.5 Channel Forms, Meanders, and Related Processes 300

14.6 Floodplain Formation and Features 305

14.7 Riparian and Channel Habitats 306

14.8 Management Problems and Guidelines 308

14.9 Case Study: Stormwater Management and Channel Restoration in an Urban Watershed 314

14.10 Selected References for Further Reading 316

Chapter 15 The Coastal Landscape: Shoreline Systems, Landforms, and Management Considerations 319

15.1 Introduction 320

15.2 Wave Action, Currents, and Longshore Sediment Transport 320

15.3 Net Sediment Transport and Sediment Mass Balance 325

15.4 Trends in Shoreline Change 326

15.5 Sand Dune Formation and Nourishment 328

15.6 Applications to Coastal Zone Planning and Management 331

15.7 Site Management Considerations 336

15.8 Case Study: In Search of Green Alternatives to Conventional Engineered Shore Protection: The Rootwall Concept 340

15.9 Selected References for Further Reading 343

Chapter 16 Solar Climate Near the Ground: Landscape and the Built Environment 345

16.1 Introduction 346

16.2 Sun Angle and Incident Radiation 346

16.3 Variations in Sun Angle with Seasons and Topography 347

16.4 Radiation Balance and Solar Heating 350

16.5 Implications for Land Use, Vegetation, and Soil 354

16.6 Implications for Buildings and Living Environments 354

16.7 Case Study: Solar Considerations in Midlatitude Residential Landscape Design 358

16.8 Selected References for Further Reading 360

Chapter 17 Microclimate, Climate Change, and the Urban Landscape 363

17.1 Introduction 364

17.2 The Urban Heat Island 364

17.3 Climatic Variations Within the Urban Region 366

17.4 Air Pollution Management in the Urban Region 373

17.5 Climate Considerations in Urban Planning 375

17.6 Climatic Criteria for Urban Planning and Design 376

17.7 Case Study: Modifying Urban Climate and Reducing Energy Use Through Landscape Design 381

17.8 Selected References for Further Reading 383

Chapter 18 Ground Frost, Permafrost, Land Use, and Environment 385

18.1 Introduction 386

18.2 Daily and Seasonal Variations in Soil Heat 387

18.3 Controls on Soil Heat and Ground Frost 388

18.4 Permafrost 393

18.5 Land Use and Frozen Ground 394

18.6 Planning and Design Applications 397

18.7 Climate Change in a Permafrost Landscape 399

18.8 Case Study: Permafrost and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline 401

18.9 Selected References for Further Reading 403

Chapter 19 Vegetation, Land Use, and Environmental Assessment 405

19.1 Introduction 406

19.2 Description and Classification of Vegetation 406

19.3 Trends in Vegetation Change 407

19.4 The Concept of Sensitive Environments 413

19.5 Vegetation as a Tool in Landscape Planning and Design 414

19.6 Approaches to Vegetation Analysis 419

19.7 Sampling Vegetation 421

19.8 Vegetation and Environment Assessment 422

19.9 Case Study: Vegetation and Wildlife Habitat in Residential Planning, Central Texas 423

19.10 Selected References for Further Reading 426

Chapter 20 Landscape Ecology, Land Use, and Habitat Conservation Planning 429

20.1 Introduction 430

20.2 The Biogeographical Foundation 430

20.3 Habitat, Land Use, and Biodiversity 432

20.4 Endangered, Threatened, and Protected Species 436

20.5 Patterns and Measures of Landscape Fragmentation 437

20.6 Habitat Conservation Planning 440

20.7 Case Study: Marsh Restoration for Bird Habitat in the Fraser River Delta, British Columbia 443

20.8 Selected References for Further Reading 445

Chapter 21 Wetlands, Habitat, and Land Use Planning 447

21.1 Introduction 448

21.2 Wetland Management Rationale 448

21.3 Wetland Hydrology 449

21.4 The Wetland Ecosystem 450

21.5 Wetland Types and Settings 452

21.6 Comprehensive Wetland Classification System 455

21.7 Wetland Mapping 458

21.8 Management and Mitigation Considerations 459

21.9 Case Study: In Search of Better Wetland Regulation and Management 462

21.10 Selected References for Further Reading 465

Chapter 22 Framing the Land Use Plan: A Systems Approach 467

22.1 Introduction 468

22.2 Getting a Handle on Systems 469

22.3 Framing Space in a Watershed 473

22.4 Designing Conceptual Alternatives 476

22.5 Testing and Evaluating Concept Plans 476

22.6 Advancing the Plan 477

22.7 Case Study: The Mountain Watershed Variation 479

22.8 Selected References for Further Reading 481

Glossary 483

Credits 499

Index 501