New and Evolving Infections of the 21st Century Book

Evolving Infectious Diseases
West Nile Vims in the Americas   Lyle R. Petersen   John T. Roehrig   James J. Sejvar
Virology     3
Virus Structure     3
Genome     3
E-protein     4
Nonstructural Proteins     6
Genetics and Virulence     8
Epidemiology     9
Ecology     9
Vectors     9
Vertebrate Hosts     11
Geographic Spread     12
United States and Canada     12
Latin America     12
Incidence of Human Infection and Illness     15
United States     15
Canada     16
Risk Factors for Infection, Severe Disease, and Death     17
Non-Mosquito Transmission Routes     18
Blood Transfusion     18
Organ Transplantation     18
Intrauterine Transmission     19
Other Transmission Modes     19
Clinical Spectrum     20
West Nile Fever     20
Neuroinvasive Disease     21
Meningitis     23
Encephalitis     23
Weakness and Paralysis     24
Other Clinical Manifestations     27
Ocular Manifestations     27
Miscellaneous Manifestations     28
Clinical Illness in Special Population Groups     28
Children     28
Immunocompromised Patients     28
Diagnosis     29
Antibody Detection     29
IgM Elisa     29
IgG Elisa     30
Neutralization Test     30
Antigen Detection     31
Antigen-Capture Elisa     31
Immunohistochemical Staining     31
Detection of Viral Genomic Sequences     31
Nucleic Acid Amplification Test (NAAT)     31
Other Laboratory, Radiologic, and Electrodiagnostic Findings     33
Management     34
Prevention     36
Human Personal Protection     36
Mosquito Control     37
Vaccines     37
Screening of Blood Donations     38
Future Directions     38
Surveillance     38
Diagnosis and Treatment     39
Prevention     39
References     40
Hantavirus Cardiopulmonary Syndrome: A New Twist to an Establisiied Pathogen   Frederick T. Koster   Howard Levy
Virology      57
Classification and Characteristics     57
Viral Replication     58
Pathophysiology and Animal Models     61
Cell Entry     61
Virulence     62
Cellular Targets for HV     63
Pathology and Pathogenesis     64
Role of the T-Cell Response     65
Immunity     67
Animal Models     69
Epidemiology and Transmission     70
Epidemiology     70
Transmission     70
Clinical Spectrum     73
Asymptomatic or Mild Infection     73
Incubation Period     74
Clinical Presentation of HCPS     74
Febrile Phase     74
Cardiopulmonary Phase     75
Convalescent Phase     76
Clinical Presentation of HFRS     76
Diagnosis of Acute Infection     77
Current Management     77
Prevention     80
Future Directions     81
References     82
Human Ehrlichioses and Anaplasmosis   Jere W. McBride   David H. Walker
Human Ehrlichioses (Human Monocytotropic and Ehrlichiosis Ewingii)     93
Taxonomy      93
Morphology     93
Genetic, Antigenic, and Phenotypic Characteristics     96
Pathogenesis and Immunity     98
Emergency, Epidemiology, and Transmission     102
Clinical Spectrum     104
Laboratory Diagnosis     105
Treatment and Prevention     106
Human Anaplasmosis     107
Taxonomy     107
Morphology     107
Genetic, Antigenic, and Phenotypic Characteristics     108
Pathogenesis and Immunity     110
Emergency, Epidemiology and Transmission     114
Clinical Spectrum     115
Laboratory Diagnosis     115
Prevention and Treatment     116
Future Directions     117
References     117
Cross-Species Transmission of Poxviruses   Mike Bray
Introduction: The Poxvirus Family     129
The Poxvirus "Survival Strategy"     134
Measures and Countermeasures     135
Maintenance Hosts and Cross-Species Transmission     138
Barriers to Cross-Species Transmission     139
Poxviruses That Cause Human Disease     140
Orthopoxvirus     141
Variola Virus     142
Monkeypox Virus      143
Vaccinia Virus     144
CowPox Virus     145
Ectromelia Virus     146
CamelPox Virus     147
Other Orthopoxviruses     147
Yatapoxvirus     148
Parapoxvirus     149
Molluscipoxvirus     150
Genera that have not Caused Human Disease     151
Leporipoxvirus     151
Capripoxvirus     152
Suipoxvirus     153
Avipoxvirus     154
Newly Identified Poxvirus Genera     155
Conclusion     155
References     156
Newly Recognized Human Viruses
The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome   Kwok-Yung Yuen   Samson S.Y. Wong   J.S. Malik Peiris
Introduction     163
Sequence of Events     163
Epidemiological Characteristics     164
General Virology     166
Clinical Findings     172
Laboratory Diagnostics     173
Pathology and Immunology     174
Animal Models and Koch's Postulates     175
Clinical Management     176
Antivirals and Immunomodulators     177
Passive and Active Immunization      178
Laboratory Safety, Community and Hospital Infection Control     182
References     183
Newly Identified Human Herpesviruses: HHV-6, HHV-7, and HHV-8   Laurie T. Krug   Chong-Gee Teo   Keiko Tanaka-Taya   Naoki Inoue
HHV-6 and HHV-7     197
Biology     197
Cell Tropism and Viral Entry     197
Gene Expression and Replication     198
Latency and Reactivation     199
Immune Responses and Immune Evasion     201
Pathogenesis     202
Animal Models     203
Epidemiology     203
Primary Infection     203
Transmission     204
Proposed Disease Associations     205
Clinical Spectrum     205
Exanthem Subitum (Roseola)     205
Encephalitis     206
Post-transplantation Disease     206
Management and Prevention     208
Antivirals     208
Transplantation Management     208
HHV-8     208
Biology     208
Cell Tropism and Viral Entry     208
Latency and Reactivation     209
Immune Response and Immune Evasion     210
Pathogenesis      216
Animal Models     222
Epidemiology     226
Seroepidemiology     226
HHV-8 Genotypes     229
Transmission     231
Clinical Spectrum     234
Primary Infection     234
Kaposi's Sarcoma     235
Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL)     238
Castleman's Disease     239
Other Lymphoproliferative Disorders     240
Other Neoplastic Disorders     240
Other Diseases     240
Management     241
Antivirals     241
Anti-retroviral Protease Inhibitors     242
Other Approaches     242
References     242
Emerging Viruses in Asia
Nipah and Hendra Viruses Encephalitis   Khean Jin Goh   Kum Thong Wong   Chong Tin Tan
Introduction     279
Hendra Virus Infection     279
Epidemiology     280
Clinical Features     280
Diagnosis     281
Pathology     281
Nipah Virus Infection     281
Epidemiology     282
Clinical Features     284
Investigations     285
Treatment and Outcome      287
Relapsed and Late-Onset Encephalitis     287
Pathology     287
Pathogenesis     289
Conclusion     290
References     290
Enterovirus 71 Encephalitis   Luan-Yin Chang   Shin-Ru Shih   Li-Min Huang   Tzou-Yien Lin
Virology     295
Virological Classification of Enterovirus 71     295
General Characteristics of Enterovirus     296
Virion Structure of Enterovirus     296
Replication Cycle of Enterovirus     297
Genotypes and Neurovirulence of EV71     297
Transmission and Incubation Period     298
Route of Transmission     298
The Rate of Household Transmission     299
Incubation Period     300
Epidemiology     300
Worldwide Epidemiology     300
Epidemiology in Taiwan     301
Clinical Spectrum     303
Asymptomatic Infection     304
Stage 1: Uncomplicated EV71 Illness     304
Stage 2: Complicated EV71 Illness with CNS Involvement     305
EV71 Aseptic Meningitis     305
EV71 Encephalitis     306
Polio-like Syndrome      306
Encephalomyelitis     306
Image Studies for CNS Involvement     306
Stage 3: Cardiopulmonary Failure or Pulmonary Edema     307
Pathogenesis of EV71-related Cardiopulmonary Failure     308
Stage 4: Convalescence and Long-term Sequelae     310
Factors Associated with Complications     310
EV71 Versus Coxsackievirus A16     310
Diagnosis     311
Virus Isolation and Identification     311
Gene Chips     311
Serology Test     312
Neutralizing Antibody     312
EV71 IgM     312
Management     313
Stage-based Management     314
Antiviral Agents     314
Inhibitors of Virion Attachment for Enteroviruses     315
Inhibitors of Uncoating for Enteroviruses     316
Pleconaril (VP 63843) and Novel Anti-EV71 Agents     316
Prevention     318
Hand Washing and Isolation     318
EV71-related Disease and Laboratory Surveillance     319
Vaccination     319
Future Directions     320
References     320
Avian Influenza Viruses and Pandemic Influenza   Menno Douwe de Jong
Introduction      327
Virology     328
Biological Properties     328
Classification     329
Natural Hosts     329
Determinants of Host Range     329
Antigenic Variation and The Emergence of Pandemic Influenza Strains     331
Antigenic Drift     331
Antigenic Shift     331
Pathogensis of Avian Influenza     332
Avian Influenza Virus Infections in Natural Hosts     332
Viral Determinants of Pathogenicity     333
Host Factors     336
Avian Influeza Viruses Infecting Humans     337
Pandemics of the 20th Century     337
H7N7 Viruses     339
H7N3 Viruses     341
H9N2 Viruses     342
H5N1 Viruses     343
Outbreaks of Influenza H5N1 in Poultry and Humans     343
The Clinical Spectrum of Human H5N1 Infections     344
The Evolution of H5N1 Viruses, 1997-2004     347
Laboratory Diagniosis of Avian Influenza     349
Virus Isolation     349
Antigen Detection     350
RT-PCR     350
Serology     351
Treatment and Prevention     352
Antiviral Treatment      352
Infection Control and Prophylaxis     354
Vaccination     356
Pandemic Preparedness and Future Directives     356
References     359
Index     369