Western Society: A Brief History, Vol. 1 Book

Preface

Chapter 1

Origins, ca. 400,000–1100 B.C.E.

From Caves to Towns

Images in Society The Iceman

Mesopotamian Civilization

Mapping the Past Map 1.1: Spread of Cultures in the Ancient Near East

The Invention of Writing and the First Schools

Mesopotamian Thought and Religion

Sumerian Social and Gender Divisions

The Spread of Mesopotamian Culture

The Triumph of Babylon

Life Under Hammurabi

Egypt, the Land of the Pharaohs (3100–1200 B.C.E.)

The God-King of Egypt

The Pharaoh’s People

The Hyksos in Egypt (1640–1570 B.C.E.)

The New Kingdom: Revival and Empire (1500–1075 B.C.E.)

Individuals in Society Nefertiti, the "Perfect Woman"

The Hittites and the End of an Era (ca. 1640–1100 B.C.E.)

The Coming of the Hittites (ca. 1640–1200 B.C.E.)

The Fall of Empires and the Survival of Cultures (ca. 1200 B.C.E.)

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past A Quest for Immortality

Chapter 2

Small Kingdoms and Mighty Empires in the Near East, ca. 1100–513 B.C.E.

Disruption and Diffusion

The End of Egyptian Power

The Rise of Phoenicia

Individuals in Society Wen-Amon

The Children of Israel

The Evolution of the Jewish State

Elements of Jewish Religion

Assyria, the Military Monarchy

The Power of Assyria

Mapping the Past Map 2.2: The Assyrian and Persian Empires

Assyrian Culture

The Empire of the Persian Kings

The Land of the Medes and Persians

The Rise of the Persian Empire (550–540 B.C.E.)

Thus Spake Zarathustra

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past The Covenant Between Yahweh and the Hebrews

Chapter 3

Classical Greece, ca. 1650–338 B.C.E.

Hellas: The Land

The Minoans and Mycenaeans (ca. 2000–ca. 1100 B.C.E.)

Homer, Hesiod, Gods, and Heroes (1100–800 B.C.E.)

The Polis

Origins of the Polis

Governing Structures

The Archaic Age (800–500 B.C.E.)

Overseas Expansion

The Growth of Sparta

The Evolution of Athens

The Classical Period (500–338 B.C.E.)

The Persian Wars (499–479 B.C.E.)

Growth of the Athenian Empire (478–431 B.C.E.)

The Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.E.)

Mapping the Past Map 3.2: The Peloponnesian War

Athenian Arts in the Age of Pericles

Daily Life in Periclean Athens

Gender

Greek Religion

The Flowering of Philosophy

Individuals in Society Aspasia

The Final Act (404–338 B.C.E.)

The Struggle for Hegemony

Philip and the Macedonian Ascendancy

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past The Great Plague at Athens, 430 B.C.E.

Chapter 4

The Hellenistic World, 336–146 B.C.E.

Alexander and the Great Crusade

Alexander’s Legacy

The Political Legacy

Mapping the Past Map 4.1: The Hellenistic World

The Cultural Legacy

The Spread of Hellenism

Cities and Kingdoms

Men and Women in Hellenistic Monarchies

Greeks and Easterners

Hellenism and the Jews

The Economic Scope of the Hellenistic World

Hellenistic Intellectual Advances

Religion in the Hellenistic World

Philosophy and the People

Hellenistic Science

Hellenistic Medicine

Individuals in Society Archimedes and the Practical Application of Science

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Alexander and the Brotherhood of Man

Chapter 5

The Rise of Rome, ca. 750–44 B.C.E.

The Etruscans and Rome

The Etruscans and the Roman Settlement of Italy (ca. 750–509 B.C.E.)

The Roman Conquest of Italy (509–290 B.C.E.)

The Roman Republic

The Roman State

Social Conflict in Rome

Roman Expansion

Italy Becomes Roman

Overseas Conquest (282–146 B.C.E.)

The Punic Wars and Beyond (264–133 B.C.E.)

Mapping the Past Map 5.2: Roman Expansion During the Republic

Rome Turns East (211–133 B.C.E.)

Old Values and Greek Culture

Cato and the Traditional Ideal

Scipio Aemilianus: Greek Culture and Urban Life

The Late Republic (133–31 B.C.E.)

Unrest in Rome and Italy

Civil War

Individuals in Society Quintus Sertorius

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past A Magic Charm

Chapter 6

The Pax Romana, 31 B.C.E.– 450 C.E.

Augustus’s Settlement (31 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)

The Principate and the Restored Republic

Roman Expansion into Northern and Western Europe

Literary Flowering and Social Changes

The Coming of Christianity

Unrest in Judaea

The Life and Teachings of Jesus

The Spread of Christianity

The Appeal of Christianity

Augustus’s Successors

The Julio-Claudians and the Flavians

The Age of the "Five Good Emperors" (96–180 C.E.)

Life in the "Golden Age"

Imperial Rome

Mapping the Past Map 6.2: The Economic Aspect of the Pax Romana

Rome and the Provinces

Individuals in Society Bithus, a Typical Roman Soldier

Images in Society The Roman Villa at Chedworth

Rome in Disarray and Recovery (177–450 C.E.)

Civil Wars and Foreign Invasions in the Third Century

Reconstruction Under Diocletian and Constantine (284–337 C.E.)

Inflation and Taxes

The Decline of Small Farms

The Acceptance of Christianity

The Construction of Constantinople

From the Classical World to Late Antiquity

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Rome Extends Its Citizenship

Chapter 7

Late Antiquity, 350–600

The Byzantine Empire

Sources of Byzantine Strength

The Law Code of Justinian

Byzantine Intellectual Life

Individuals in Society Theodora of Constantinople

The Growth of the Christian Church

The Church and Its Leaders

The Church and the Roman Emperors

The Development of Christian Monasticism

Western and Eastern Monasticism

Christian Ideas and Practices

Christian Notions of Gender and Sexuality

Saint Augustine on Human Nature, Will, and Sin

Christian Missionaries and Conversion

Missionaries on the Continent

Missionaries in the British Isles

Conversion and Assimilation

Migrating Peoples

Celts, Germans, and Huns

Mapping the Past Map 7.3: The Barbarian Migrations

Germanic Kingdoms

Anglo-Saxon England

Barbarian Society

Kinship, Custom, and Class

Law

Social and Economic Structures

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past The Conversion of Clovis

Chapter 8

Europe in the Early Middle Ages, 600–1000

The Spread of Islam

The Arabs

The Prophet Muhammad

The Teachings of Islam

Expansion and Schism

Muslim Spain

Science and Medicine

Muslim-Christian Relations

The Frankish Kingdom

The Merovingians

The Rise of the Carolingians

The Empire of Charlemagne

Charlemagne’s Personal Qualities and Marriage Strategies

Territorial Expansion

The Government of the Carolingian Empire

The Imperial Coronation of Charlemagne

Decentralization and "Feudalism"

Manorialism, Serfdom, and the Slave Trade

Individuals in Society Ebo of Reims

Early Medieval Scholarship and Culture

Scholarship and Religious Life in Northumbria

The Carolingian Renaissance

Invasions and Migrations

Vikings in Western Europe

Mapping the Past Map 8.3: Invasions and Migrations of the Ninth Century

Slavs and Vikings in Eastern Europe

Magyars and Muslims

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Feudal Homage and Fealty

Chapter 9

State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000–1300

Political Revival

Medieval Origins of the Modern State

England

France

Central Europe

Sicily

The Iberian Peninsula

Law and Justice

France and the Holy Roman Empire

Henry II and Thomas Becket

King John and Magna Carta

The Papacy

The Gregorian Reforms

Emperor versus Pope

Innocent III and His Successors

The Crusades

Background

Mapping the Past Map 9.4: The Routes of the Crusades

Motives and Course of the Crusades

Crusades Within Europe and the Expansion of Christendom

Consequences of the Crusades

Individuals in Society The Jews of Speyer: A Collective Biography

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past An Arab View of the Crusades

Chapter 10

The Changing Life of the People in the High Middle Ages

Village Life

Slavery, Serfdom, and Upward Mobility

The Manor

Agricultural Methods and Improvements

Households, Work, and Food

Health Care

Childbirth and Child Abandonment

Popular Religion

Village Churches and Christian Symbols

Saints and Sacraments

Beliefs

Muslims and Jews

Marriage and Children

Death and the Afterlife

Nobles

Origins and Status of the Nobility

Childhood

Youth and Marriage

Power and Responsibility

Monasteries and Convents

Monastic Revival

Life in Convents and Monasteries

Individuals in Society Hildegard of Bingen

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past The Pilgrim’s Guide to Santiago de Compostela

Chapter 11

The Creativity and Challenges of Medieval Cities

Towns and Economic Revival

The Rise of Towns

Town Liberties and Merchant Guilds

Craft Guilds

City Life

Servants and the Poor

The Revival of Long-Distance Trade

Mapping the Past Map 11.1: Trade and Manufacturing in Medieval Europe

Business Procedures

The Commercial Revolution

Individuals in Society Francesco Datini

Medieval Universities

Origins

Abelard and Heloise

Instruction and Curriculum

Thomas Aquinas and the Teaching of Theology

Arts and Architecture

Vernacular Literature and Entertainment

Churches and Cathedrals

Images in Society From Romanesque to Gothic

Cities and the Church

Heretical Groups

The Friars

The Friars and Papal Power

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Courtly Love

Chapter 12

The Crisis of the Later Middle Ages, 1300–1450

Prelude to Disaster

The Black Death

Spread of the Disease

Mapping the Past Map 12.1: The Course of the Black Death in Fourteenth-Century Europe

Care

Social, Economic, and Cultural Consequences

The Hundred Years’ War

Causes

The Popular Response

The Course of the War to 1419

Joan of Arc and France’s Victory

Costs and Consequences

Challenges to the Church

The Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism

The Conciliar Movement

Individuals in Society Jan Hus

Economic and Social Change

Peasant Revolts

Urban Conflicts

Sex in the City

Fur-Collar Crime

Ethnic Tensions and Restrictions

Literacy and Vernacular Literature

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Christine de Pizan

Chapter 13

European Society in the Age of the Renaissance, 1350–1550

Economic and Political Developments

Commercial Developments

Communes and Republics

The Balance of Power Among the Italian City-States

Intellectual Change

Humanism

Education

Political Thought

Secular Spirit

Christian Humanism

The Printed Word

Mapping the Past Map 13.2: The Growth of Printing in Europe

Art and the Artist

Art and Power

Subjects and Style

Individuals in Society Leonardo da Vinci

Social Hierarchies

Race

Class

Gender

Politics and the State in the Renaissance (ca. 1450–1521)

France

England

Spain

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past An Age of Gold

Chapter 14

Reformations and Religious Wars, 1500–1600

The Early Reformation

The Christian Church in the Early Sixteenth Century

Martin Luther

Protestant Thought

The Appeal of Protestant Ideas

The Radical Reformation

The German Peasants’ War

The Reformation and Marriage

Images in Society Art in the Reformation

The Reformation and German Politics

The Rise of the Habsburg Dynasty

The Political Impact of the Protestant Reformation

The Spread of the Protestant Reformation

The Reformation in England and Ireland

Calvinism

The Establishment of the Church of Scotland

The Reformation in Eastern Europe

The Catholic Reformation

The Reformed Papacy

The Council of Trent

Mapping the Past Map 14.2: Religious Divisions in Europe

New Religious Orders

Individuals in Society Teresa of Ávila

Religious Violence

French Religious Wars

The Netherlands Under Charles V

The Great European Witch-Hunt

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Martin Luther, On Christian Liberty

Chapter 15

European Exploration and Conquest, 1450–1650

World Contacts Before Columbus

The Trade World of the Indian Ocean

Africa

The Ottoman and Persian Empires

Genoese and Venetian Middlemen

The European Voyages of Discovery

Causes of European Expansion

Technological Stimuli to Exploration

The Portuguese Overseas Empire

Mapping the Past Map 15.1: Overseas Exploration and Conquest, Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

The Problem of Christopher Columbus

Later Explorers

New World Conquest

Europe and the World After Columbus

Spanish Settlement and Indigenous Population Decline

Sugar and Slavery

The Columbian Exchange

Colonial Administration

Silver and the Economic Effects of Spain’s Discoveries

The Birth of the Global Economy

Individuals in Society Juan de Pareja

Changing Attitudes and Beliefs

New Ideas About Race

Michel de Montaigne and Cultural Curiosity

Elizabethan and Jacobean Literature

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Columbus Describes His First Voyage

Chapter 16

Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Western Europe, ca. 1589–1715

Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding

Economic and Demographic Crisis

Seventeenth-Century State Building: Common Obstacles and Achievements

Popular Political Action

Absolutism in France and Spain

The Foundations of Absolutism: Henry IV, Sully, and Richelieu

Louis XIV and Absolutism

Financial and Economic Management Under Louis XIV: Colbert

Louis XIV’s Wars

Mapping the Past Map 16.1: Europe in 1715

The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the Seventeenth Century

The Culture of Absolutism

Baroque Art and Music

Court Culture

French Classicism

Constitutionalism

Absolutist Claims in England (1603–1649)

Religious Divides

Puritanical Absolutism in England: Cromwell and the Protectorate

The Restoration of the English Monarchy

The Triumph of England’s Parliament: Constitutional Monarchy and Cabinet Government

The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century

Individuals in Society Glückel of Hameln

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past The Court at Versailles

Chapter 17

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe to 1740

Warfare and Social Change in Central and Eastern Europe

The Consolidation of Serfdom

The Thirty Years’ War

Consequences of the Thirty Years’ War

The Rise of Austria and Prussia

The Austrian Habsburgs

Austrian Rule in Hungary

Prussia in the Seventeenth Century

The Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism

Images in Society Absolutist Palace Building

The Development of Russia and the Ottoman Empire

The Mongol Yoke and the Rise of Moscow

Mapping the Past Map 17.3: The Expansion of Russia to 1725

Tsar and People to 1689

The Reforms of Peter the Great

The Growth of the Ottoman Empire

Individuals in Society Hürrem

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past A Foreign Traveler in Russia

Chapter 18

Toward a New Worldview, 1540–1789

The Scientific Revolution

Scientific Thought in 1500

The Copernican Hypothesis

From Brahe to Galileo

Newton’s Synthesis

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

Science and Society

The Enlightenment

The Emergence of the Enlightenment

The Philosophes and the Public

Urban Culture and the Public Sphere

Late Enlightenment

Race and the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment and Absolutism

Frederick the Great of Prussia

Catherine the Great of Russia

The Austrian Habsburgs

Mapping the Past Map 18.1: The Partition of Poland and Russia’s Expansion, 1772–1795

Individuals in Society Moses Mendelssohn and the Jewish Enlightenment

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Voltaire on Religion

Chapter 19

The Expansion of Europe in the Eighteenth Century

Agriculture and the Land

The Agricultural Revolution

The Leadership of the Low Countries and England

The Beginning of the Population Explosion

Cottage Industry and Urban Guilds

The Putting-Out System

The Textile Industry

Mapping the Past Map 19.1: Industry and Population in Eighteenth-Century Europe

Urban Guilds

The Industrious Revolution

Building the Global Economy

Mercantilism and Colonial Wars

The Atlantic Slave Trade

Trade and Empire in Asia

Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism

Images in Society London: The Remaking of a Great City

Individuals in Society Olaudah Equiano

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past The Debate over the Guilds

Chapter 20

The Changing Life of the People

Marriage and the Family

Late Marriage and Nuclear Families

Work Away from Home

Premarital Sex and Community Controls

New Patterns of Marriage and Illegitimacy

Children and Education

Child Care and Nursing

Foundlings and Infanticide

Attitudes Toward Children

Schools and Popular Literature

Food, Medicine, and New Consumption Habits

Diets and Nutrition

Toward a Consumer Society

Medical Practitioners

Individuals in Society Madame du Coudray, the Nation’s Midwife

Religion and Popular Culture

The Institutional Church

Protestant Revival

Catholic Piety

Leisure and Recreation

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past A Day in the Life of Paris

Chapter 21

The Revolution in Politics, 1775–1815

Background to Revolution

Legal Orders and Social Change

The Crisis of Political Legitimacy

The Impact of the American Revolution

Financial Crisis

Revolution in Metropole and Colony, 1789–1791

The Formation of the National Assembly

The Revolt of the Poor and the Oppressed

A Limited Monarchy

Revolutionary Aspirations in Saint-Domingue

World War and Republican France, 1791–1799

Foreign Reactions and the Beginning of War

The Second Revolution

Total War and the Terror

Revolution in Saint-Domingue

The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory, 1749–1799

The Napoleonic Era, 1799–1815

Napoleon’s Rule of France

Napoleon’s Expansion in Europe

The War of Haitian Independence

The Grand Empire and Its End

Individuals in Society Toussaint L’Ouverture

Mapping the Past Map 21.1: Napoleonic Europe in 1810

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Revolution and Women’s Rights

Chapter 22

The Revolution in Energy and Industry, ca. 1780–1860

The Industrial Revolution in Britain

Eighteenth-Century Origins

The First Factories

The Steam Engine Breakthrough

The Coming of the Railroads

Industry and Population

Industrialization in Continental Europe

The Challenge of Industrialization

Government Support and Corporate Banking

Mapping the Past Map 22.2: Continental Industrialization, ca. 1850

Relations Between Capital and Labor

The New Class of Factory Owners

The New Factory Workers

Conditions of Work

Changes in the Division of Labor by Gender

The Early Labor Movement in Britain

Individuals in Society The Strutt Family

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Testimony Concerning Young Mine Workers

Chapter 23

Ideologies and Upheavals, 1815–1850

The Peace Settlement

The European Balance of Power

Mapping the Past Map 23.1: Europe in 1815

Intervention and Repression

Radical Ideas and Early Socialism

Liberalism

Nationalism

French Utopian Socialism

The Birth of Marxian Socialism

The Romantic Movement

Romanticism’s Tenets

Literature

Art and Music

Reforms and Revolutions

National Liberation in Greece

Liberal Reform in Great Britain

Ireland and the Great Famine

The Revolution of 1830 in France

The Revolutions of 1848

A Democratic Republic in France

The Austrian Empire in 1848

Prussia and the Frankfurt Assembly

Individuals in Society Jules Michelet

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Speaking for the Czech Nation

Chapter 24

Life in the Emerging Urban Society in the Nineteenth Century

Taming the City

Industry and the Growth of Cities

Public Health and the Bacterial Revolution

Mapping the Past Map 24.1: European Cities of 100,000 or More, 1800 and 1900

Urban Planning and Public Transportation

Rich and Poor and Those in Between

Social Structure

The Middle Classes

Middle-Class Culture

The Working Classes

Working-Class Leisure and Religion

Images in Society Class and Gender Boundaries in Women’s Fashion, 1850–1914

The Changing Family

Premarital Sex and Marriage

Kinship Ties

Gender Roles and Family Life

Child Rearing

Individuals in Society Franziska Tiburtius

Science and Thought

The Triumph of Science

Social Science and Evolution

Realism in Literature

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past Middle-Class Youth and Sexuality

Chapter 25

The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914

Napoleon III in France

The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon

Napoleon III’s Second Empire

Nation Building in Italy and Germany

Cavour and Garibaldi in Italy

Bismarck and the Austro-Prussian War, 1866

The Taming of the Parliament

The Franco-Prussian War, 1870–1871

Mapping the Past Map 25.2 The Unification of Germany, 1866–1871

Nation Building in the United States

The Modernization of Russia and the Ottoman Empire

The "Great Reforms"

The Revolution of 1905

Decline and Reform in the Ottoman Empire

The Responsive National State, 1871–1914

General Trends

The German Empire

Republican France

Great Britain and Ireland

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

Jewish Emancipation and Modern Anti-Semitism

Individuals in Society Theodor Herzl

Marxism and the Socialist Movement

The Socialist International

Unions and Revisionism

Chapter Review

Listening to the Past The Making of a Socialist

Chapter 26

The West and the World, 1815–1914

Industrialization and the World Economy

The Rise of Global Inequality

The World Market

The Opening of China and Japan

Western Penetration of Egypt

The Great Migration