World of Psychology Book

Preface     xxiii
Introduction to Psychology     2
An Introduction to The World of Psychology     5
Studying Psychology: Some Tricks of the Trade     6
Psychology: Science or Common Sense!     7
The Goals of Psychology     8
Exploring Psychology's Roots     9
Structuralism     10
Functionalism     10
The Changing Face of Psychology     11
Schools of Thought in Psychology     13
Behaviorism     13
Psychoanalysis     14
Humanistic Psychology     14
Cognitive Psychology     14
Thinking about Theories and Research     16
Evaluating Theories     16
Evaluating Research     17
Descriptive Research Methods     18
Naturalistic and Laboratory Observation     18
The Case Study     19
Survey Research     19
The Correlational Method     21
The Experimental Method     23
Experiments and Hypothesis Testing     23
Independent and Dependent Variables     24
Experimental and Control Groups     25
Sources of Bias in Experimental Research     25
Limitations of the Experimental Method     26
Participants in Psychological Research     28
Participant-Related Bias in Psychological Research     28
Protecting Research Participants' Rights     29
The Use of Animals in Research     29
Current Trends in Psychology     31
Evolutionary Psychology     31
Biological (Physiological) Psychology     31
The Sociocultural Approach     32
Psychological Perspectives and Eclecticism     33
Psychologists at Work     34
Specialties in Psychology     34
Majoring in Psychology     35
Biology and Behavior     40
The Neurons and the Neurotransmitters     43
The Structure of the Neuron     44
Communication between Neurons     44
Neurotransmitters: The Neuron's Messengers     46
The Variety of Neurotransmitters     48
The Human Nervous System     49
The Spinal Cord     50
The Hindbrain     51
The Midbrain     52
The Forebrain     53
The Peripheral Nervous System     54
Discovering the Brain's Mysteries     56
The EEC and the Microelectrode     56
The CT Scan and Magnetic Resonance Imaging     57
The PET Scan, fMRI, and Other Imaging Techniques     57
A Closer Look at the Brain     58
Components of the Cerebrum     58
The Cerebral Hemispheres     59
The Frontal Lobes     63
The Parietal Lobes     66
The Occipital Lobes     67
The Temporal Lobes     67
The Brain across the Life Span     68
Gender Differences in the Adult Brain     69
The Endocrine System     70
Genes and Behavioral Genetics     72
The Mechanisms of Heredity     73
Behavioral Genetics     74
Sensation and Perception     80
The Process of Sensation     83
The Absolute and Difference Thresholds     84
Transduction and Adaptation     84
Vision     86
The Eye     86
Vision and the Brain     88
Color Vision     90
Theories of Color Vision     90
Color Blindness     91
Hearing     92
Sound     92
The Ear     93
Theories of Hearing      94
Hearing Loss     95
The Other Senses: Smell, Taste, Touch, and Balance     96
Smell     96
Taste     99
Touch     100
Pain     101
Balance and Movement     103
Principles of Perception     104
Perceptual Organization     104
Depth Perception     106
Motion Perception     107
Puzzling Perceptions     109
Influences on Perception     111
Prior Knowledge     112
Attention     113
Social Perception     114
Unusual Perceptual Experiences     115
States of Consciousness     120
What Is Consciousness?     123
Circadian Rhythms     124
The Influence of Circadian Rhythms     124
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus     125
Disruptions in Circadian Rhythms     125
Circadian Timing and Neurological Disorders     127
Sleep     128
Why Do We Sleep?     128
Types of Sleep     128
Sleep Cycles     129
REM Sleep and Memory     130
Variations in Sleep     131
Sleep Deprivation      131
Dreams     133
Interpreting Dreams     134
Sleep Disorders     135
Meditation and Hypnosis     136
Meditation     137
Hypnosis     138
Culture and Altered States of Consciousness     140
Psychoactive Drugs     141
How Drugs Affect the Brain     141
Risk and Protective Factors for Substance Abuse     142
Drug Addiction     144
The Behavioral Effects of Psychoactive Drugs     146
Herbal Remedies and Supplements     151
Learning     156
Classical Conditioning: The Original View     159
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning     160
The Process of Classical Conditioning     161
Changing Conditioned Responses     162
John Watson and Emotional Conditioning     165
Classical Conditioning: The Contemporary View     166
The Cognitive Perspective     167
Biological Predispositions     167
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life     168
Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning     170
Operant Conditioning     170
Thorndike and the Law of Effect     171
The Process of Operant Conditioning     171
Reinforcement     173
Schedules of Reinforcement     174
Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning     177
Punishment     177
Escape and Avoidance Learning     180
Applications of Operant Conditioning     181
Cognitive Learning     183
Learning by Insight     183
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps     184
Observational Learning     184
Learning from Media     187
Memory     194
The Structure of Human Memory     197
The Information-Processing Approach     197
Sensory Memory     198
Short-Term Memory     199
Long-Term Memory     201
The Nature of Remembering     203
Three Types of Memory Tasks     203
The Serial Position Effect     204
Context and Memory     205
Memory as Reconstruction     206
Memory in Everyday Life     208
Flashbulb and Photographic Memories     208
Memory and Culture     209
Eyewitness Testimony     210
The Repressed Memory Controversy     211
Biology and Memory      213
The Hippocampus and Hippocampal Region     213
Neuronal Changes and Memory     214
Hormones and Memory     215
Forgetting     216
Ebbinghaus and the First Experimental Studies on Forgetting     216
The Causes of Forgetting     217
Improving Memory     221
Cognition, Language, and Intelligence     228
Cognition     231
Reasoning     231
Imagery     232
Concepts     233
Decision Making     234
Problem Solving     237
Artificial Intelligence     239
Language     240
The Structure of Language     240
Language and Thinking     242
Learning a Second Language     242
Animal Communication     244
Intelligence     246
The Nature of Intelligence     246
Measuring Intelligence     249
Requirements of Good Tests     251
The Bell Curve     252
Giftedness     253
Mental Retardation     254
Explaining Differences in Cognitive Abilities     255
The Heritability of Intelligence     255
Intelligence: Fixed or Changeable?     257
Race and IQ     259
Culture, IQ, and Achievement     260
Beyond Intelligence     262
Emotional Intelligence     262
Creativity     263
Savant Syndrome     265
Child Development     270
Developmental Psychology: Basic Issues and Methodology     273
Controversial Issues in Developmental Psychology     273
Approaches to Studying Developmental Change     274
Prenatal Development     276
Stages of Prenatal Development     276
Fetal Behavior     277
Negative Influences on Prenatal Development     278
Infancy     280
Reflexes and Motor Development     280
Sensory and Perceptual Development     282
Learning     282
Temperament     283
Attachment     284
The Father-Child Relationship     286
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development     288
Schemes: The Foundation of Cognitive Development     288
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development     289
An Evaluation of Piaget's Contribution     294
Other Approaches to Cognitive Development      296
Vygotsky's Sociocultural View     296
The Information-Processing Approach     296
Language Development     298
The Sequence of Language Development     298
Theories of Language Development     299
Learning to Read     300
Social Development     301
The Parents' Role in the Socialization Process     301
Peer Relationships     303
Television as a Socializing Agent     304
Culture and Child Development     305
Adolescence and Adulthood     312
The Lifespan Perspective     315
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory     315
The Identity Crisis     316
Generativity     317
Adolescence     319
Puberty     319
Cognitive Development     321
Moral Development     322
Parental Relationships     325
The Peer Group     326
Emerging Adulthood     326
Early and Middle Adulthood     328
Physical Changes     328
Intellectual Abilities     329
The Impact of College Attendance     330
Lifestyle Patterns in Adulthood     333
Later Adulthood      336
Physical Changes in Later Adulthood     336
Cognitive Changes in Later Adulthood     338
Alzheimer's Disease-the Most Common Dementia     338
Social Development and Adjustment in Later Adulthood     339
Cultural Differences in Care for the Elderly     341
Death and Dying     342
Motivation and Emotion     348
Explaining Motivation     352
The Components of Motivation     352
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation     352
Biological Approaches to Motivation     353
Two Primary Drives: Hunger and Thirst     355
Thirst     356
Internal and External Hunger Cues     356
Explaining Variations in Body Weight     357
Weight Loss Strategies     360
Eating Disorders     361
Social Motives     363
Achievement Motivation     364
Work Motivation     365
Understanding Emotion     366
Explaining the Components of Emotions     366
Theories of Emotion     367
Emotion and the Brain     369
Expressing Emotion     370
The Range of Emotion     370
The Development of Facial Expressions     371
The Universality of Facial Expressions     371
Cultural Rules for Displaying Emotion     372
Emotion as a Form of Communication     373
The Art and Science of Lie Detection     374
Experiencing Emotion     375
The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis     376
Gender Differences in Experiencing Emotion     376
Emotion and Cognition     377
Love     378
Human Sexuality and Gender     384
Sex, Gender, and Gender Roles     387
Biological Sex     387
Psychological Gender     388
Early Theories of Gender Role Development     389
The Multi-Dimensional Approach to Gender Roles     391
Gender Schema Theory     393
Evolutionary Theory     393
Gender Differences     395
Thinking about Gender Differences     396
Cognitive Abilities     397
Gender Differences in Social Behavior and Personality     400
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior     401
Gender and Cultural Differences     402
Sexual Desire and Arousal     404
Sexual Orientation     406
Determinants of Sexual Orientation      406
Social Attitudes toward Gays and Lesbians     408
Gay and Lesbian Relationships     409
Sexual Dysfunctions     410
Sexual Desire Disorders     410
Sexual Arousal Disorders     410
Orgasmic and Sexual Pain Disorders     411
Sexually Transmitted Diseases     412
Bacterial STDs     413
Viral STDs     414
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)     414
Health and Stress     422
Sources of Stress     425
Life Events: Big and Small     425
Daily Hassles and Uplifts     427
Conflicts and Controllability     428
Stress in the Workplace     429
Catastrophic Events     430
Racism and Stress     430
Socioeconomic Status and Stress     431
Responding to Stress     433
Selye and the General Adaptation Syndrome     433
Lazarus's Cognitive Theory of Stress     434
Coping Strategies     434
Health and Illness     436
Two Approaches to Health and Illness     436
Coronary Heart Disease     436
Cancer     438
The Immune System and Stress      439
Personal Factors Reducing the Impact of Stress and Illness     440
Gender and Health     442
Race and Health     442
Lifestyle and Health     444
Smoking and Health     445
Alcohol Abuse     446
Diet     447
Exercise     448
Alternative Medicine     448
Personality Theory and Assessment     454
Psychoanalytic Theories     457
The Conscious, the Preconscious, and the Unconscious     457
The Id, the Ego, and the Superego     458
The Psychosexual Stages of Development     460
Evaluating Freud's Contribution     462
The Neo-Freudians     463
Humanistic Theories     465
Two Humanistic Theories     465
Self-Esteem     466
Trait Theories     467
Early Trait Theories     467
The Five-Factor Model     469
Origins and Stability of the Five Factors     471
Culture and Personality Traits     471
Social-Cognitive Theories     473
The Situation-Trait Debate     473
Reciprocal Determinism     474
Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control      475
Personality Assessment     477
Observation, Interviews, and Rating Scales     477
Personality Inventories     478
Projective Tests     480
Psychological Disorders     486
Defining Psychological Disorders     489
What Is Abnormal?     489
Classifying Psychological Disorders     491
Explaining Psychological Disorders     492
Prevalence of Psychological Disorders     493
Anxiety Disorders     494
Panic Attacks and Agoraphobia     495
Common Anxiety Disorders     496
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder     498
Mood Disorders     499
Major Depressive Disorder     499
Culture, Gender, and Depression     500
Bipolar Disorder     500
Explaining Mood Disorders     502
Suicide and Race, Gender, and Age     502
Schizophrenia     504
Age, Gender, and Schizophrenia     504
Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia     505
Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia     505
Types of Schizophrenia     506
Explaining Schizophrenia     506
Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders      510
Somatoform Disorders     510
Dissociative Disorders     510
Personality Disorders     512
Characteristics of Personality Disorders     513
Types of Personality Disorders     513
Disorders Diagnosed in Childhood     516
Pervasive Developmental Disorders     516
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder     518
Therapies     524
Insight Therapies     527
Psychodynamic Therapies     527
Interpersonal Therapy     528
Humanistic Therapies     529
Gestalt Therapy     529
Relationship Therapies     530
Couple Therapy     530
Family Therapy     530
Group Therapy     531
Behavior Therapies     532
Behavior Modification Techniques Based on Operant Conditioning     532
Behavior Therapies Based on Other Learning Theories     533
Cognitive Therapies     536
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy     536
Beck's Cognitive Therapy     537
Biological Therapies     538
Drug Therapy     538
Psychiatric Drugs for Children and Adolescents     542
Electroconvulsive Therapy     543
Psychosurgery     543
Evaluating the Therapies     544
Culturally Sensitive and Gender-Sensitive Therapy     547
Social Psychology     552
Social Perception     556
Impression Formation     556
Attribution     556
Attraction     557
Factors Influencing Attraction     557
Physical Attractiveness     558
Romantic Attraction and Mating     559
Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance     560
Conformity     560
Obedience     562
Compliance     562
Group Influence     563
Social Facilitation     564
Social Loafing     564
Social Roles     565
Attitudes and Attitude Change     566
Attitudes     566
Cognitive Dissonance     567
Persuasion     568
Prosocial Behavior     569
Reasons for Helping     570
The Bystander Effect     570
Aggression     572
Biological Factors in Aggression     572
Other Influences on Aggression     573
The Social Learning Theory of Aggression     574
Sexual Aggression     575
Prejudice and Discrimination     577
The Roots of Prejudice and Discrimination     577
Is Prejudice Decreasing?     579
Unlearning Prejudice     580
Psychology in the Workplace     584
Personnel Psychology&n