The World of Children Book

Preface     xiv
About the Authors     xxxiii
Beginnings     3
Exploring Child Development     5
Defining the Field     6
What Develops?     7
What Drives Development? Nature and Nurture     8
Theories of Child Development     10
What Is a Theory, and Why Are Theories Useful?     10
Psychoanalytic Theories     11
Behavioral and Social Learning Theories     14
Cognitive Theories     17
Biological Theories     19
Systems Theories     20
Using the Scientific Method: Research in Child Development     24
Descriptive Research Methods     25
Correlational Research Methods: Measuring Associations     26
Experimental Research Methods: Determining Cause and Effect     29
Methods for Assessing Development     30
Ethics in Research with Children     32
Applications of Child Development Research and Careers Related to Children     34
Practical Applications of Child Development Research     34
A Personal Perspective: Meet First-Time Parents     35
A Social Policy Perspective: Every Day in America     36
Careers Related toChildren     37
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Child Social Worker     38
Thinking Back to Jennifer...     39
Chapter Review     40
Key Terms     41
MyDevelopmentLab     41
Heredity and the Environment     43
Genes and Human Reproduction     44
Genes and the Magical Four-Letter Code     44
Human Reproduction and Cell Division     47
A Social Policy Perspective: Protecting the Genetic Privacy of Citizens     48
A Personal Pesrpective: Meet a Mother Who Used Artificial Insemination     50
How Traits and Genetic Abnormalities Are Inherited     55
Dominant-Recessive Traits     56
Chromosome Abnormalities     60
Prenatal Screening and Genetic Testing     61
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Genetic Counselor     64
How Genes and Environments Interact     65
Range of Reaction     66
Canalization     66
Niche-Picking: I Gotta Be Me...     68
Probabilistic Epigenesis: Activating Your Genes     69
Behavior Genetics: Measuring the Heritability of Traits     71
Behavior Genetics, Heritability, and Shared and Nonshared Environments     71
How Is Heritability Estimated?     72
Heritability of Complex Characteristics     73
Thinking Back to Daniel and Teri...     78
Chapter Review     79
Key Terms     80
MyDevelopmentLab     81
Prenatal Development and Birth     83
Prenatal Development     84
Conception     84
Stages of Prenatal Development     85
Teratogens: Health Risks for the Baby     90
Alcohol     92
Cocaine     93
A Personal Perspective: Meet a Family Who Adopted a Child with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome     94
Cigarette Smoking     95
Maternal Health     95
A Social Policy Perspective: The Case of Malissa Ann Crawley     96
Maternal Age     97
Critical Periods     98
The Role of Fathers     99
The Process of Birth     101
Stages of Birth     101
Birthing Complications: Something Isn't Right     103
The Newborn Baby     103
Becoming a Family: Psychological Adjustments to Having a Newborn     104
Options in Giving Birth: Choices and Alternatives      106
Approaches to Labor and Delivery     106
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Certified Nurse-Midwife     108
Drugs During Labor and Delivery     110
The Partner's Role: Helping During Birth     111
Thinking Back to Kendra and James...     113
Chapter Review     114
Key Terms     115
MyDevelopmentlab     116
Summary     117
Infants and Toddlers: The First Years (Birth through 2 years)     119
Physical Development in Infants and Toddlers     121
Infants at Risk: Prematurity and Infant Mortality     122
What is Prematurity?     123
Infant Mortality     124
A Personal Perspective: Meet the Parents of a Very Premature Baby     125
Having a Healthy Baby     126
Growth of the Body and Brain     127
Physical Growth     127
Feeding and Nutrition     128
Structure of the Brain and Nervous System     131
Forming the Brain and Nervous System     133
A Social Policy Perspective: Can Mozart Stimulate Neural Connections in Infants?     134
Sensory Capabilities     136
Basic Components of Vision      136
How Well Do Infants Hear?     138
Smell and Taste     139
Motor Development     140
Reflexes: The Infant's First Coordinated Movements     141
Voluntary Movements: The Motor Milestones     142
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Physical Therapist     144
Cultural Differences in Early Experience     146
Toilet Training     147
Thinking Back to Beverly...     148
Chapter Review     149
Key Terms     150
MyDevelopmentLab     151
Cognitive Development in Infants and Toddlers     153
Perceptual Development     154
Robert Fantz and the Early Work in Testing Visual Preferences     155
Habituation-Dishabituation Research     157
Intermodal Perception: Putting It All Together     158
A Social Policy Perspective: Assessing Infant Intelligence: A Good Idea?     159
Explaining Cognitive Development: Piaget's Constructivist View     161
Piaget as a Child Prodigy     162
Constructivism and Interaction with the Environment     162
Sensorimotor Thought (Birth to 2 Years)     166
A Personal Perspective: Where Did It Go?      170
Learning to Communicate     171
What Is Language?     172
Learning Theory; Language as a Learned Skill     172
Nativist Theory: Born to Talk     173
Interaction Theories: Cognitive and Social Interactionist Approaches     177
Early Communication: How Language Starts     179
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Speech-Language Pathologist     183
Thinking Back to Diana...     185
Chapter Review     185
Key Terms     187
MyDevelopmentLab     187
Socioemotional Development in Infants and Toddlers     189
Attachment     190
The Story of Attachment Research     190
Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation     193
Parent, Infant, and Cultural Factors in Attachment     196
Fathers, Day Care, and Attachment     199
A Social Policy Perspective: Parental Leave Policies in the United States and Other Nations     200
Early Attachment and Long-Term Outcomes     201
Other Measures of Attachment     202
Temperament     203
Types of Temperaments     204
Other Approaches to Temperament     206
A Personal Perspective: Meet the Parent of a Difficult Child     207
Emotion     209
Infant Responses to Emotions     209
Toddler Self-Conscious Emotions     211
Social Relations and Play     212
Infant Social Interactions     212
Infant Sensorimotor Play     213
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Toy Company Executive     214
Toddler Friends     215
Toddler Conflicts     215
Toddler Symbolic Play     216
Thinking Back to Erin...     217
Chapter Review     218
Key Terms     219
MyDevelopmentLab     220
Summary     221
Early Childhood: The Playful years (3 through 6 years)     223
Physical Development in Early Childhood     225
Growth of the Body and Brain     226
Physical Growth     226
Nutrition     228
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Family Nutrition Counselor     228
Growth and Development of the Brain     230
The Role of Experience in Brain Development     230
Larger Developmental Patterns in the Brain     232
Motor Development and Physical Activity     234
Gross-Motor Development     235
Fine-Motor Development     236
Physical Activity and Exercise     237
Cerebral Palsy     239
A Personal Perspective: Living with Cerebral Palsy     240
Health and Safety Issues     241
Childhood Deaths and Safety Issues     242
Child Maltreatment: Abuse and Neglect     243
Effects of Abuse and Neglect     246
A Social Policy Perspective: Protecting Children from Neglect     249
Thinking Back to Tammi and Her Neighbors...     250
Chapter Review     251
Key Terms     252
MyDevelopmentLab     253
Cognitive Development in Early Childhood     255
Preoperational Thought     256
Flourishing Mental Representations     256
Emergence of Intuitive Thought: "It Seems Like..."     258
Conservation Problems     259
Piaget's Legacy     260
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Constructivist Teacher     261
Vygotsky's Sociocultural View of Cognitive Development     262
Vygotsky's Background: The Sociocultural Context for a New Theory     262
The Role of Speech and Language     263
Mediation: With a Little Help from Your Friends     264
The Zone of Proximal Development     264
Scaffolding and Collaborative Learning     265
Information Processing     267
What Is the Information-Processing Approach?     267
The Development of Basic Cognitive Processes     269
Metacognition and the Child's Developing Theory of Mind     271
Language Development     274
An Expanding Vocabulary     274
Learning Grammar     275
Learning the Social Rules of Discourse     275
Bilingual Children: Learning Two Languages     277
A Personal Perspective: Meet a Bilingual Family     279
Early Childhood Education and Kindergarten Readiness     280
Early Childhood Education     280
Kindergarten Readiness     283
A Social Policy Perspective: Project Head Start: What Lies Ahead?     284
Thinking Back to Maria...     285
Chapter Review     286
Key Terms     287
MyDevelopmentLab     287
Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood     289
The Social and Emotional Self     290
The Self     290
Self-Regulation     291
The Self and Emotions     293
Developing Ideas about Gender     293
Moral Development     295
Parenting     298
Dimensions of Parenting     298
Parenting Styles: Best Practices for Raising Children     299
Discipline: Spare the Rod and Spare the Child?     302
A Social Policy Perspective: Should Parents Have to Be Licensed?     303
Positive Discipline     305
A Personal Perspective: Carrots or Sticks? Family Discipline at Different Ages     307
Friends and Play     308
Gender Segregation     309
Play     311
The Social Levels of Play: Parten's Classic Study     311
A Professional Perspective: Meet the Director of a Child Care Center     312
Sociodramatic Play     313
Cultural Differences in Play     314
Nonparental Child Care     316
Nonparental Care and Its Effects     316
Child Care Quality     317
Thinking Back to Cassandra...     320
Chapter Review     320
Key Terms     322
MyDevelopmentLab     322
Summary     323
Middle Childhood: The School Years (7 through 11 years)      325
Physical Development in Middle Childhood     327
Growth of the Body and Brain     328
Physical Growth     328
Overweight Children     329
Growth and Maturation of the Brain     331
Motor Development and Physical Activity     333
Motor Development     333
Physical Activity and Exercise     334
Organized Sports     336
Health and Safety Issues     339
Childhood Injuries and Safety Issues     339
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Pediatrician     342
Child Sexual Abuse     343
A Personal Perspective: Surviving Child Sexual Abuse: One Survivor's Story     346
Children with Exceptional Needs     347
What Is Developmental Psychopathology?     348
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder     349
Communication and Learning Disorders     350
Autism Spectrum Disorders     353
Educating Children with Exceptional Needs     355
A Social Policy Perspective: Educating Children with Exceptional Needs     357
Thinking Back to Clayton...     358
Chapter Review     359
Key Terms      360
MyDevelopmentLab     361
Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood     363
Concrete Operational Thought (Ages 7 through 11)     364
What Is Concrete Operational Thinking?     364
Class Inclusion, Seriation, and Transitive Inference Skills     365
Information Processing: Memory Development     366
Two Models of Memory: Stores and Networks     366
Working Memory     367
Long-Term Memory     369
Other Characteristics of Memory Development     372
A Social Policy Perspective: Children's Eyewitness Testimony: The Truth, the Whole Truth, and Nothing but the Truth?     374
Information Processing: Knowledge, Strategies, and New Approaches     375
A Professional Perspective: Meet a Child and Family Therapist     376
Knowledge Base     377
Strategy Development     379
Newer Approaches to Understanding Cognitive Development     380
Information Processing: Where Does It Stand?     384
Learning to Communicate: Language in Middle Childhood     385
Experts in the Basics     385
Metalinguistic Awareness     386
Changes in How Language Is Used     387
Connectionist Models of Language Development      387
Cognition in Context     389
Development of Mathematical Skills     389
Development of Reading Skills     392
A Personal Perspective: Meet a Literacy Volunteer     394
Development of Writing Skills     394
Thinking Back to Manny and Angelique...     396
Chapter Review     397
Key Terms     399
MyDevelopmentLab     399
Socioemotional Development in Middle Childhood     401
The Social and Emotional Self     402
Self-Evaluations     402
Emotional Development     405
Gender Differences     406
Moral and Prosocial Reasoning     406
Aggression, Conduct Problems, and Resilient Children     408
Families     411
Children and Divorce     411
Never-Married Households     417
Stepfamilies     417
Play, Friends, and Peer Popularity     419
Logic and Physical Skills in Play     419
Best Friends     420
A Personal Perspective: We Are Best Friends     420
Peer Popularity     420
A Social Cognition Model of Peer Relations     423
Helping Rejected Children      424
Schools and the Media     425
Children's Beliefs and Teachers' Expectations about Schooling     426
Classroom Climate and Grouping Practices in Schools     427
Children and the Media     428
A Social Policy Perspective: Bilingual Education in the Schools     429
Children and Television     429
Video Games, Computers, and the Internet     431
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a Marketing Executive     433
Thinking Back to Katie...     434
Chapter Review     435
Key Terms     436
MyDevelopmentLab     436
Summary     437
Adolescence: The Transition toward Adulthood (12 years and beyond)     439
Physical Development in Adolescence     441
Growth of the Body and Brain During Adolescence     442
Puberty     442
Early and Late Maturation     444
Brain Development     445
A Personal Perspective: Meet a Young Adolescent     446
Sexual Activity During Adolescence     448
Patterns of Sexual Activity     449
Reasons for Becoming Sexually Active     450
Contraceptive Use in Adolescence      453
Sexual Knowledge and Sex Education     454
A Social Policy Perspective: The Sex Education Debate     455
Special Concerns about Teenage Sexual Activity     456
Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Adolescents     457
Teenage Pregnancy     458
Forced Sexual Behavior     461
Adolescent Health Issues     463
Nutrition and Exercise     464
Eating Disorders     465
Adolescents Need More Sleep     466
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet an Eating Disorders Counselor     467
Substance Use and Abuse     468
Depression     471
Causes of Death     472
Thinking Back to Marcus...     475
Chapter Review     476
Key Terms     477
MyDevelopmentLab     477
Cognitive Development in Adolescence     479
Formal Operational Thought (12 years and Above)     480
What Is Formal Operational Thought?     480
Adolescent Egocentrism     482
Evaluating Piaget's Theory     484
Piaget's Legacy     485
Recent Sociocultural Views of Cognitive Development     486
Situated Cognition      487
Guided Participation and Communities of Practice     487
Thinking as Socially Shared Cognition: Two Heads Are Better than One     488
Intelligence     489
Theories of Intelligence     490
Assessing Intelligence     495
Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation and Giftedness     497
A Professional Perspective: Career Focus: Meet a School Psychologist     498
Ethnic Differences and Questions about Cultural Bias     501
A Social Policy Perspective: Ethnicity and IQ     502
Learning to Communicate: Language in Adolescence     504
The Adolescent Register     504
Genderlects     505
Social and Cultural Dialects     505
Cognition in Context: Adolescents Making Decisions     507
How Well Do Adolescents Make Decisions?     507
Making Vocational Choices     508
The Forgotten Third: Improving the Transition from School to Work     510
A Personal Perspective: I Graduated-Now What?     512
Thinking Back to Maya...     513
Chapter Review     514
Key Terms     515
MyDevelopmentLab     515
Socioemotional Development in Adolescence      517
Who Am I? Adolescents' Understanding of Themselves     518
Identity     518
Sexual Orientation     521
A Personal Perspective: Developing an Ethnic Identity     522
Morality     525
Social Relationships: Family     529
Teens Developing A