From Dual to Cooperative Federalism: The Changing Structure of European Law Book

Table of Cases xvii

Table of Legislation xxv

Abbreviations xxxv

Introduction: Corning to Constitutional Terms 1

General Part Federalism in America and Europe

Chapter 1 Federal Tradition(s) and the European Union 13

Introduction: Federalism and (Inter)national Law 14

I The Federal Principle: Three Legal Traditions 15

1 The Classic Tradition: The 'International'Format of the Federal Principle 16

2 The American Tradition: The 'Mixed' Format of the Federal Principle 22

3 The European Tradition: The 'Nationall' Format of the Federal Principle 30

a Conceptual Polarization: 'Confederation' versus 'Federation' 31

b Early Criticism: The European Tradition and the (missing) Federal Genus 36

II The European Union: American and European Perspectives 40

1 The 'Supranational' Europe: A (Very) Brief History 41

2 The European Union in the Light of the American Tradition 47

a The Foundational Dimension: Europe's 'Constitutional Treaty' 48

b The Institutional Dimension: A European Union of States and People(s) 52

c The Functional Dimension: The Division of Powers in Europe 56

d Overall Classification: The European Union on Federal 'Middle Ground' 58

3 The European Union in the Light of the European Tradition 58

a Posing the Sovereignty Question: The 'Maastricht Decision' 60

b Europe's Statist Tradition Unearthed: Three Constitutional Denials 63

Conclusion: The European Union as a 'Federation of States' 69

Chapter 2 Federal Philosophies and the Structure of American Law 75

Introduction: Federal Philosophies and Constitutional Structures 76

I The 'New Nationalism': The Decline of Constitutional Exclusivity 80

1 Expanding the Federal Universe: The Decline of State 'Police Powers' 84

2 Changing Nature: From Exclusive to Concurrent Power 88

II The 'New Federalism': The Decline of Legislative Exclusivity 94

1 From Concurrent to Shared Powers: The Decline of 'Classic' Pre-emption 96

a The Rise of the Modern Pre-emption Framework 98

b Changing Judicial Philosophies: The 'New Federalism' 101

2 Changing Nature: From Constitutional to Legislative 'Pre-emption 105

Excursus-The Foreign Affairs 'Exception' 108

1 Foreign Affairs and the Treaty-Making Power: Dual Federalism Constitutionalized 109

a Constitutional Certainties: The Unitary Scope of the Federal Treaty Power 110

b Constitutional Ambivalences: The Treaty-Making Powers of the States 113

2 Foreign Affairs and Internal Legislation: Dual Federalism De-Constitutionalized? 116

Conclusion: The Changing Structure of American Law 122

Special Part The Changing Structure of European Law

Chapter 3 The Decline of Constitutional Exclusivity 129

Introduction: Federalism and Exclusive Powers 130

I Europe's Expanding Sphere: The Decline of State 'Police Powers' 132

1 Europe's 'Necessary and Proper Clause': The Scope of Article 308 EC 133

a Internal Limits: Legislation Necessary in the Course of the Common Market 135

b External Limits: The 'Constitutional Identity' of the European Community 139

l Europe's 'Commerce Clause(s)': The Scope of Articles 94 and 95 EC 143

a Internal Limits: Harmonization of National Laws for the Internal Market 144

b External Limits: Constitutional 'Saving Clauses' for State 'Police Powers'? 149

3 The European Union and the Problem of Competence-Competence 151

II Europe's Contracting Sphere: The Decline of Federal Exclusive Powers 156

1 Dual Federalism Constitutionalized: The Genesis of Exclusive Powers 157

a Judicial Genesis no 1: The Common Commercial Policy 158

b Judicial Genesis no 2: The Conservation of Biological Resources of the Sea 162

2 Ontological Deformations: Restrictive Interpretation and 'Partial Exclusivity' 167

3 The Delegation Doctrine: How Exclusive are Europe's 'Exclusive' Powers? 173

a Delegation within the CCP: From Specific Authorization to Carte Blanche 175

b Delegation within the Conservation Policy: Cooperative Federalism at Sea? 179

Conclusion: European Federalism and Exclusive Powers 184

Chapter 4 The Decline of Legislative Exclusivity 189

Introduction: European Federalism and Shared Powers 190

I The Commerce Clause(s): Harmonization in the Internal Market 192

1 The Two Dimensions of European Legislation: Scope and Intensity 194

2 Harmonization under the 'Old Approach': Shared Powers and Dual Federalism 199

3 Harmonization under the 'New Approach': The Rise of Cooperative Federalism 205

a Reducing Europe's Scope: Cassis de Dijon and the Commission's 'New Strategy' 205

b The 'New Approach' to Harmonization: From Vertical to Horizontal Legislation 207

II The Common Agricultural Policy: A Policy Unlike Any Other? 215

1 The 'Old' CAP: Common Market Organizations as Vertical Legislation 217

a The Exclusionary Effect of CMOs: Between 'Field' and 'Obstacle' Pre-emption 220

b National Caveats: Delegated Community Powers or Autonomous State Powers? 225

2 The 'New' CAP: From Vertical to Horizontal Legislation 230

a Restructuring the CAP: From Product to Producer Support 231

b The Rise of Cooperative Federalism: 'Breaking up' Occupied Fields? 235

Conclusion: European Federalism and Shared Powers 237

Chapter 5 Cooperative Federalism Constitutionalized 241

Introduction: The Constitutional Safeguards of Cooperative Federalism 242

I The Principle of Subsidiarity: A Political Safeguard of Federalism 243

1 Subsidiarity De Lege Lata: A Textual Genealogy 247

a Constitutional Clarifications: From Edinburgh to Amsterdam 251

b Judicial Clarifications: Subsidiarity and Proportionality 253

2 Subsidiarity De Lege Ferenda: Strengthening the Safeguards of Federalism 256

a Strengthening the Political Safeguards of Federalism 257

b Strengthening the Judicial Safeguards of Federalism 261

II Complementary Competences: A Judicial Safeguard of Federalism 265

1 Environmental Policy: A Constitutional Commitment to Minimum Harmonization 270

a Article 175 EC: Soft or Hard Constitutional Frame? 272

b The Scope of Article 176 EC: Cutting Across the Treaty? 277

2 Public Health: Novel Constitutional Techniques 279

Conclusion: The Constitutional Safeguards of Cooperative Federalism 284

Chapter 6 Excursus: A Foreign Affairs 'Exception'? 287

Introduction: The European Union and Foreign Affairs 288

I Europe's International Powers: Dual Federalism in the External Sphere 290

1 Parallel External Powers: Existence and Scope 291

a From ERTA to the 'Triumph of Parallelism' 292

b Towards a Theory of Implied External Powers: Three Conceptions 297

2 Parallel External Powers: Essence and Exercise 303

a The Theory of Subsequent Exclusivity: The ERTA Doctrine 305

b Political Safeguards: Mixed Agreements as a Federal Technique 308

II Theory and Practice: Towards Cooperative Federalism? 311

1 Constitutional Theory: The Slowly Emergent Doctrine of Community Supremacy 312

a Normative Ambivalences: International Agreements between (all) Member States 313

b A Flight into Dual Federalism: Member States' Agreements with Third States 320

2 Constitutional Practice: The ERTA Doctrine and Cooperative Federalism 329

Conclusion: The European Union and Foreign Affairs 340

Conclusion: Europe's Gemeinweg towards Cooperative Federalism 345

Bibliography 353

Index 381