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A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology Book

A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology
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A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology, A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology, 4e is ideal for courses in Computer Ethics and Computers and Society. It is also a useful reference for computer science professionals or anyone interested in learni, A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology
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  • A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology
  • Written by author Sara Baase
  • Published by Prentice Hall, 8/10/2012
  • A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology, 4e is ideal for courses in Computer Ethics and Computers and Society. It is also a useful reference for computer science professionals or anyone interested in learni
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1 Unwrapping the Gift 1
1.1 The Pace of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Changes and Unexpected Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Connections: Cellphones, Social Networking, and More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 E-commerce and Free Stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Amateur Creative Works: Blogs and Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.5 Tools for Disabled People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.6 What Next? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 Issues and Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.1 What Is Ethics, Anyway? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.2 A Variety of Ethical Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.3 Some Important Distinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2 Privacy 35
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1.1 What Is Privacy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1.2 New Technology, New Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.3 Terminology and Principles for Managing Personal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.4 Stolen and Lost Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2 The Fourth Amendment, Expectation of Privacy, and Surveillance Technologies . . . . . . 48
2.2.1 The Fourth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.2 New Technologies, Supreme Court Decisions, and Expectation of Privacy . . . . . 50
2.2.3 Search and Seizure of Computers and Phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2.4 Video Surveillance and Face Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3 The Business and Social Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.1 Marketing and Personalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.2 Our Social and Personal Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3.3 Location Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.4 A Right to Be Forgotten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.4 Government Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.1 Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.2 Public Records: Access versus Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.4.3 National ID Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.5 Protecting Privacy: Technology, Markets, Rights, and Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.1 Technology and Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.2 Rights and Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.5.3 Privacy Regulations in the European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.6 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.6.1 Wiretapping and Email Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.6.2 Designing Communications Systems for Interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.6.3 Secret Intelligence Gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3 Freedom of Speech 107
3.1 Communications Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.1.1 Regulating Communications Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.1.2 Free-Speech Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.2 Controlling Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.2.1 Offensive Speech: What Is It? What Is Illegal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.2.2 Censorship Laws and Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.2.3 Child Pornography and Sexting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.2.4 Spam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2.5 Challenging Old Regulatory Structures and Special Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3 Posting, Selling, and Leaking Sensitive Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.4 Anonymity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.5 The Global Net: Censorship and Political Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.5.1 Tools for Communication, Tools for Oppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.5.2 Aiding Foreign Censors and Repressive Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.5.3 Shutting Down Communications in Free Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.6 Net Neutrality Regulations or the Market? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

4 Intellectual Property 145
4.1 Principles, Laws, and Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.1.1 What Is Intellectual Property? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.1.2 Challenges of New Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.1.3 A Bit of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.1.4 The Fair-Use Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.1.5 Ethical Arguments About Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.1.6 Significant Legal Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.2 Responses to Copyright Infringement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.2.1 Defensive and Aggressive Responses From the Content Industries . . . . . . . . . 159
4.2.2 The Digital Millennium Copyright Act: Anticircumvention . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.2.3 The Digital Millennium Copyright Act: Safe Harbor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.2.4 Evolving Business Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.3 Search Engines and Online Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.4 Free Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.4.1 What Is Free Software? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.4.2 Should All Software Be Free? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.5 Patents for Inventions in Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.5.1 Patent Decisions, Confusion, and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.5.2 To Patent or Not? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

5 Crime 187
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.2 Hacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.2.1 What is “Hacking”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.2.2 Hacktivism, or Political Hacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.2.3 Hackers as Security Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.2.4 Hacking as Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.2.5 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.2.6 The Law: Catching and Punishing Hackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.3 Identity Theft and Credit Card Fraud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.3.1 Stealing Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.3.2 Responses to Identity Theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.3.3 Biometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.4 Whose Laws Rule the Web? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.4.1 When Digital Actions Cross Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.4.2 Libel, Speech, and Commercial Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.4.3 Culture, Law, and Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.4.4 Potential Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

6 Work 225
6.1 Changes, Fears, and Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.2 The Impact on Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.2.1 Job Destruction and Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.2.2 Changing Skills and Skill Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
6.2.3 Telecommuting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.2.4 A Global Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
6.3 Employee Communication and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
6.3.1 Learning About Job Applicants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
6.3.2 Risks and Rules for Work and Personal Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7 Evaluating and Controlling Technology 255
7.1 Evaluating Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
7.1.1 The Need for Responsible Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
7.1.2 Computer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2 The “Digital Divide” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.2.1 Trends in Computer Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.2.2 The Global Divide and the Next Billion Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.3 Neo-Luddite Views of Computers, Technology, and Quality of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
7.3.1 Criticisms of Computing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
7.3.2 Views of Economics, Nature, and Human Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.4 Making Decisions About Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.4.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.4.2 The Difficulty of Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.4.3 Intelligent Machines and Superintelligent Humans–Or the End of the Human Race?285
7.4.4 A Few Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

8 Errors, Failures, and Risks 299
8.1 Failures and Errors in Computer Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.1.1 An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.1.2 Problems for Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.1.3 System Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.1.4 What Goes Wrong? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
8.2 Case Study: The Therac-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.2.1 Therac-25 Radiation Overdoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.2.2 Software and Design Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.2.3 Why So Many Incidents? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.2.4 Observations and Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
8.3 Increasing Reliability and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
8.3.1 Professional Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
8.3.2 Trust the Human or the Computer System? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
8.3.3 Law, Regulation, and Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.4 Dependence, Risk, and Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.4.1 Are We Too Dependent On Computers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.4.2 Risk and Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

9 Professional Ethics and Responsibilities 335
9.1 What Is “Professional Ethics”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
9.2 Ethical Guidelines for Computer Professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.2.1 Special Aspects of Professional Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.2.2 Professional Codes of Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.2.3 Guidelines and Professional Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
9.3 Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.3.1 Introduction and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.3.2 Protecting Personal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
9.3.3 Designing an Email System With Targeted Ads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.3.4 Webcams in School Laptops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
9.3.5 Publishing Security Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
9.3.6 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
9.3.7 Schedule Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.3.8 Software License Violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
9.3.9 Going Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
9.3.10 Release of Personal Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
9.3.11 Conflict of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
9.3.12 Kickbacks and Disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
9.3.13 A Test Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
9.3.14 Artificial Intelligence and Sentencing Criminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
9.3.15 A Gracious Host . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Epilogue 363

A The Software Engineering Code and the ACM Code 365
A.1 The Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
A.2 The ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370


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