Protected Areas and International Environmental Law Book

Acronyms     ix
Treaties referred to in this book     xi
Acknowledgements     xv
Introduction     1
The History and Scope of Protected Areas     7
From Antiquity to the Twentieth Century     7
A Matrix of Protected Areas     9
International Conventions     9
The World Heritage Convention (WHC)     9
The Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB)     12
The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar)     14
Antarctica     15
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)     16
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO)     17
Species Specific Conventions     19
Regional Conventions     21
The Regional Seas Agreements     21
The African Context     23
The European Context     24
Conclusion     26
Definitions     27
The Debate on Classification     27
International Practice and the IUCN Categories     33
Category I: Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas     33
Category II: National Parks     36
Category III: Natural Monuments     37
Category IV: Habitat/Species Management Areas     38
Category V: Multiple Use Areas     39
Category VI: Managed Resource Area     45
Conclusion     45
Values     47
The International Facilitation of the Values of Protected Areas     47
Cumulative Values     47
The Wide and Evolving Spectrum     48
Confidence Building     50
Science     51
Economic     54
Tourism     57
Values by Species, Ecosystem and Geomorphic or Physio-graphical Type     60
Endangered Species     61
Ecosystems     70
Geomorphic or Physio-graphical Areas     82
Intangible Human Values     86
Aesthetics     87
Cultural Values     90
Cultural Landscapes     93
Conclusion     95
Obligations and Gaps     97
The Impetus to Protect     97
The Obligation to Create Protected Areas     98
Marine Protected Areas     107
Transboundary Protected Areas     109
The Number of Protected Areas     111
Some International Protected Areas of Note      112
The Gaps in the System     112
Thematic Gaps     114
Marine     114
Forests     116
Mountains     119
Drylands, Arid, Semi-arid, Grassland and Savannah Ecosystems/ Dry and Semi-Humid Lands     119
Priority Areas     121
The Choice of Priority Areas     122
The Udvardy System     123
The Global 200     124
Species Focused Approaches     125
Hotspots     127
Conclusion     128
Management     131
Management Plans     131
Legal Status     137
Boundaries     139
Size     141
Buffer Zones     147
Networks and Corridors     150
Staff and Other Resources     152
Environmental Impact Assessments     157
Conclusion     165
Local Populations     167
The Paradigm Shift in Protected Area Management     167
Promotion of the Local/Traditional/Indigenous Populations     171
On-the-Ground Non-Governmental Organisations     179
Conclusion     181
Threats     183
The Integrity of a Protected Area      183
Permanent Human Populations     185
Temporary (tourist) Human Populations     186
Alien Species     191
Air Pollution and Climate Change     198
Water Supply and Large Dams     201
Mineral and/or Hydrocarbon Exploration and/or Extraction     207
Traffic and Routing     212
General Industrial Development     216
Pollution     218
Legal Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing     220
Illegal Logging, Mining and Poaching     222
War     226
Conclusion     228
Compliance     231
Discovering Sites Threatened with Danger     232
Monitoring     232
Reporting     237
Independent Visits     240
Recognition of the Danger     242
Mitigating Threatened Sites     245
Automatic Review     246
Selective Review and the Question of State Consent     247
Removal of Threatened Status     257
Conclusion     263
Financial Assistance, Communication, Constituents and Final Issues     265
Financial Assistance     265
Financial Assistance from Internal Sources      266
General Mechanisms     269
Financial Assistance from External Sources     270
Education and Communication     273
Constituents and Final Issues     277
Secretariats     277
Standing Bodies     278
Non-Governmental Organisations     280
NGO's as Partners     284
NGO's within Official Forums     288
Science and Technical Bodies     290
Submission Procedures     293
The Relationship between Organisations     297
Financing the Regimes     301
Entry into Force     302
Conclusion     303
Index     311