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| Preface | v | ||||||||||
| Chapter 1 | Photoelectric Controls and Sensors: Introduction | 1 | |||||||||
| 1.1 | Introduction | 1 | |||||||||
| 1.2 | Principles of Operation | 2 | |||||||||
| 1.2.1 | Conventional unmodulated photoelectrics | 2 | |||||||||
| 1.2.2 | Modern pulse-modulated photoelectrics | 6 | |||||||||
| 1.3 | Principal Optical Modes of Operation | 8 | |||||||||
| 1.3.1 | Thru-beam sensing | 8 | |||||||||
| 1.3.2 | Reflex sensing | 9 | |||||||||
| 1.3.3 | Proximity sensing | 10 | |||||||||
| 1.4 | Photoelectric Trends | 11 | |||||||||
| 1.4.1 | Circuit technology | 12 | |||||||||
| 1.4.2 | Interference testing | 13 | |||||||||
| 1.4.3 | Interfacing | 13 | |||||||||
| 1.4.4 | Optics | 16 | |||||||||
| 1.4.5 | Packaging | 16 | |||||||||
| Chapter 2 | Optical Fundamentals | 18 | |||||||||
| 2.1 | Producing the Beam | 18 | |||||||||
| 2.1.1 | Photoelements | 20 | |||||||||
| 2.1.2 | Lenses | 21 | |||||||||
| 2.1.3 | Beam patterns | 24 | |||||||||
| 2.2 | Reflection | 28 | |||||||||
| 2.2.1 | Diffuse reflection | 29 | |||||||||
| 2.2.2 | Specular reflection | 30 | |||||||||
| 2.2.3 | Mixed diffuse and specular reflection | 31 | |||||||||
| 2.2.4 | Retroreflection | 32 | |||||||||
| 2.3 | Transmission | 40 | |||||||||
| 2.3.1 | Refraction | 40 | |||||||||
| 2.3.2 | Scattering and absorption | 43 | |||||||||
| 2.3.3 | Polarization | 49 | |||||||||
| 2.4 | The Spectrum | 53 | |||||||||
| 2.4.1 | Source and detector spectra | 54 | |||||||||
| 2.4.2 | Filters and dyes | 57 | |||||||||
| 2.4.3 | Fluorescence | 60 | |||||||||
| 2.5 | Fiber Optics | 61 | |||||||||
| 2.5.1 | Total internal reflection | 61 | |||||||||
| 2.5.2 | Glass versus plastic fibers | 63 | |||||||||
| 2.5.3 | Spectral attenuation | 66 | |||||||||
| 2.5.4 | End termination | 69 | |||||||||
| 2.6 | Excess Gain | 69 | |||||||||
| 2.6.1 | Definition | 69 | |||||||||
| 2.6.2 | Sensor characteristics | 72 | |||||||||
| 2.6.3 | Environmental effects | 74 | |||||||||
| 2.6.4 | Sensor and target variation | 75 | |||||||||
| 2.7 | Contrast Ratio | 77 | |||||||||
| 2.7.1 | Low-contrast targets | 77 | |||||||||
| 2.7.2 | Low-contrast sensor techniques | 78 | |||||||||
| 2.7.3 | Contrast and target size | 82 | |||||||||
| 2.7.4 | Color contrast | 83 | |||||||||
| Chapter 3 | Photoelectric Optical Configurations | 87 | |||||||||
| 3.1 | Diffuse Proximity Sensing | 87 | |||||||||
| 3.1.1 | Long-range proximity sensors | 88 | |||||||||
| 3.1.2 | Short-range proximity sensors | 91 | |||||||||
| 3.1.3 | Fixed-focus proximity sensors | 94 | |||||||||
| 3.1.4 | Variable proximity sensors | 96 | |||||||||
| 3.1.5 | Ultraviolet fluorescent proximity sensors | 100 | |||||||||
| 3.1.6 | Registration mark detection | 101 | |||||||||
| 3.2 | Reflex Sensing | 103 | |||||||||
| 3.2.1 | Standard reflex sensors | 104 | |||||||||
| 3.2.2 | Visible beam sensors | 109 | |||||||||
| 3.2.3 | Polarized reflex sensors | 110 | |||||||||
| 3.3 | Thru-Beam Sensing | 115 | |||||||||
| 3.3.1 | Standard thru-beam sensors | 115 | |||||||||
| 3.3.2 | Edge guide control | 124 | |||||||||
| 3.3.3 | Data transmission | 125 | |||||||||
| 3.4 | Fiber Optics | 127 | |||||||||
| 3.4.1 | Thru-beam sensors | 128 | |||||||||
| 3.4.2 | Proximity sensors | 131 | |||||||||
| 3.4.3 | Reflex sensors | 134 | |||||||||
| 3.4.4 | Fiber cable construction | 135 | |||||||||
| 3.4.5 | Fiber cable tips | 139 | |||||||||
| 3.5 | Scanners | 141 | |||||||||
| 3.5.1 | Diameter scanners | 142 | |||||||||
| 3.5.2 | Safety light curtains | 147 | |||||||||
| 3.5.3 | Multiplexed remote sensor scanners | 150 | |||||||||
| 3.5.4 | Other scanners | 150 | |||||||||
| Chapter 4 | Photoelectric Output Interface | 155 | |||||||||
| 4.1 | Electromechanical Relays | 155 | |||||||||
| 4.1.1 | Construction | 156 | |||||||||
| 4.1.2 | Contact styles | 157 | |||||||||
| 4.1.3 | Contact materials | 159 | |||||||||
| 4.1.4 | Contact protection | 160 | |||||||||
| 4.1.5 | Rated life | 164 | |||||||||
| 4.2 | Solid-State Relays | 166 | |||||||||
| 4.2.1 | Construction | 169 | |||||||||
| 4.2.2 | Triacs | 171 | |||||||||
| 4.2.3 | Inverse-parallel SCRs | 174 | |||||||||
| 4.2.4 | Bridged transistors | 175 | |||||||||
| 4.2.5 | Bilateral FETs | 176 | |||||||||
| 4.3 | Transistor Interfaces | 178 | |||||||||
| 4.3.1 | Construction | 178 | |||||||||
| 4.3.2 | NPN sink transistors | 180 | |||||||||
| 4.3.3 | PNP source transistors | 182 | |||||||||
| 4.3.4 | Optically isolated circuits | 183 | |||||||||
| 4.4 | Two-Wire Controls | 183 | |||||||||
| 4.4.1 | Construction | 184 | |||||||||
| 4.4.2 | Electrical performance | 186 | |||||||||
| 4.5 | Analog Interfaces | 189 | |||||||||
| 4.5.1 | Circuit adjustment | 189 | |||||||||
| 4.5.2 | Output circuits | 190 | |||||||||
| Chapter 5 | Photoelectric Logic | 193 | |||||||||
| 5.1 | Timing Logic | 193 | |||||||||
| 5.1.1 | Time delay logic | 194 | |||||||||
| 5.1.2 | One-shot circuits | 196 | |||||||||
| 5.1.3 | Underspeed/overspeed | 199 | |||||||||
| 5.2 | Counting Logic | 200 | |||||||||
| 5.2.1 | Latch | 200 | |||||||||
| 5.2.2 | Preset counter | 201 | |||||||||
| 5.2.3 | Totalizing counter | 202 | |||||||||
| 5.2.4 | Shift register | 202 | |||||||||
| 5.3 | Output Device Logic | 204 | |||||||||
| 5.3.1 | Parallel OR | 205 | |||||||||
| 5.3.2 | Series AND | 209 | |||||||||
| 5.4 | Photodetector Logic | 213 | |||||||||
| 5.4.1 | Parallel OR | 214 | |||||||||
| 5.4.2 | Sum/difference | 216 | |||||||||
| 5.4.3 | Series AND | 217 | |||||||||
| 5.4.4 | Fiber optic logic | 218 | |||||||||
| 5.4.5 | Multiple LEDs | 222 | |||||||||
| Chapter 6 | Testing Standards | 227 | |||||||||
| 6.1 | Optical Standards | 227 | |||||||||
| 6.1.1 | Sunlight immunity | 228 | |||||||||
| 6.1.2 | Fluorescent light immunity | 230 | |||||||||
| 6.1.3 | Excess gain specifications | 231 | |||||||||
| 6.1.4 | Field of view and sensing zone specification | 233 | |||||||||
| 6.2 | Electrical Standards | 240 | |||||||||
| 6.2.1 | Conducted noise immunity | 240 | |||||||||
| 6.2.2 | Radio-frequency noise immunity | 243 | |||||||||
| 6.2.3 | Transient voltage spike immunity | 244 | |||||||||
| 6.2.4 | Output ratings | 244 | |||||||||
| 6.2.5 | No false pulse | 248 | |||||||||
| 6.2.6 | Safety | 249 | |||||||||
| 6.3 | Mechanical/Environmental Standards | 250 | |||||||||
| 6.3.1 | Enclosures | 250 | |||||||||
| 6.3.2 | Temperature | 255 | |||||||||
| 6.3.3 | Humidity | 256 | |||||||||
| 6.3.4 | Shock | 256 | |||||||||
| 6.3.5 | Vibration | 258 | |||||||||
| Chapter 7 | Selection Questions | 261 | |||||||||
| 7.1 | What Requires Detection? | 262 | |||||||||
| 7.1.1 | Size | 262 | |||||||||
| 7.1.2 | Reflectivity/transmissivity | 262 | |||||||||
| 7.2 | Where Is It Located? | 265 | |||||||||
| 7.2.1 | Distance | 265 | |||||||||
| 7.2.2 | Local environment | 269 | |||||||||
| 7.2.3 | Mounting location | 270 | |||||||||
| 7.3 | How Fast Does It Move? | 272 | |||||||||
| 7.3.1 | Object transition time | 272 | |||||||||
| 7.3.2 | Sensor response time | 274 | |||||||||
| 7.3.3 | Repeatability | 275 | |||||||||
| 7.4 | With What Will the Photoelectric Interface? | 275 | |||||||||
| 7.4.1 | Load interface | 275 | |||||||||
| 7.4.2 | Power supply interface | 276 | |||||||||
| 7.5 | How Much Do Installation and Maintenance Count? | 277 | |||||||||
| 7.5.1 | Mounting | 277 | |||||||||
| 7.5.2 | Wiring | 282 | |||||||||
| 7.5.3 | Alignment and adjustment | 284 | |||||||||
| 7.5.4 | Upkeep | 286 | |||||||||
| Chapter 8 | Application Examples | 289 | |||||||||
| 8.1 | Material and Process Control | 290 | |||||||||
| 8.1.1 | Broken yarn detection | 290 | |||||||||
| 8.1.2 | Broken thread detection | 291 | |||||||||
| 8.1.3 | Broken wire detection | 292 | |||||||||
| 8.1.4 | Web loop control | 293 | |||||||||
| 8.1.5 | "Rate of feed" tension control | 294 | |||||||||
| 8.1.6 | Web material centering | 295 | |||||||||
| 8.1.7 | Web edge control | 296 | |||||||||
| 8.1.8 | Web break detection: clear plastic | 297 | |||||||||
| 8.1.9 | Web break detection: paper | 298 | |||||||||
| 8.1.10 | Web splice detection | 299 | |||||||||
| 8.1.11 | Web flaw detection | 300 | |||||||||
| 8.1.12 | Roll wind length control | 301 | |||||||||
| 8.1.13 | Roll end detection | 302 | |||||||||
| 8.1.14 | Trim length control | 303 | |||||||||
| 8.1.15 | Filter paper length control | 304 | |||||||||
| 8.1.16 | Cutoff saw control | 305 | |||||||||
| 8.1.17 | Hypodermic needle quality control | 306 | |||||||||
| 8.1.18 | Steel strip misalignment detection | 307 | |||||||||
| 8.1.19 | Oven belt control | 308 | |||||||||
| 8.1.20 | Sorting potatoes by size | 309 | |||||||||
| 8.1.21 | Nail length inspection | 310 | |||||||||
| 8.1.22 | Cookie motion detection | 311 | |||||||||
| 8.1.23 | Liquid level control | 312 | |||||||||
| 8.1.24 | Hopper fill level control | 313 | |||||||||
| 8.1.25 | Liquid clarity control | 314 | |||||||||
| 8.1.26 | Smoke detection | 315 | |||||||||
| 8.1.27 | Smoke density monitor | 316 | |||||||||
| 8.1.28 | Missing print detection | 317 | |||||||||
| 8.1.29 | Quality control: tile warp | 318 | |||||||||
| 8.1.30 | Integrated circuit lead inspection | 319 | |||||||||
| 8.2 | Packaging | 320 | |||||||||
| 8.2.1 | Label on glass bottle detection | 320 | |||||||||
| 8.2.2 | Cap and bottle presence detection | 321 | |||||||||
| 8.2.3 | Cap orientation detection | 322 | |||||||||
| 8.2.4 | Bottle fill level and cap detection | 323 | |||||||||
| 8.2.5 | Reversed cap detection | 324 | |||||||||
| 8.2.6 | Liquid level detection | 325 | |||||||||
| 8.2.7 | Liquid fill level detection | 326 | |||||||||
| 8.2.8 | Wine bottle missing cork inspection | 327 | |||||||||
| 8.2.9 | Container spacing adjustment | 328 | |||||||||
| 8.2.10 | Fallen bottle control | 329 | |||||||||
| 8.2.11 | Aerosol can inspection | 330 | |||||||||
| 8.2.12 | Carton sealing | 331 | |||||||||
| 8.2.13 | Registration mark detection | 332 | |||||||||
| 8.2.14 | Tube orientation | 333 | |||||||||
| 8.2.15 | Label position control | 334 | |||||||||
| 8.2.16 | Shiny container detection | 335 | |||||||||
| 8.2.17 | Indexing: shrink wrap | 336 | |||||||||
| 8.2.18 | Glue bead control | 337 | |||||||||
| 8.3 | Material Handling | 338 | |||||||||
| 8.3.1 | Conveyor jam detection | 338 | |||||||||
| 8.3.2 | Container size sorting: two sensors | 339 | |||||||||
| 8.3.3 | Container size sorting: one sensor | 340 | |||||||||
| 8.3.4 | Container sorting by retro tape | 341 | |||||||||
| 8.3.5 | Shift register delayed ejection | 342 | |||||||||
| 8.3.6 | Carton counting | 343 | |||||||||
| 8.3.7 | Batch counting | 344 | |||||||||
| 8.3.8 | Pallet load wrapping control | 345 | |||||||||
| 8.3.9 | Palletizer off-load control | 346 | |||||||||
| 8.3.10 | Stack height control | 347 | |||||||||
| 8.3.11 | Log diverter | 348 | |||||||||
| 8.4 | Machine Tool | 349 | |||||||||
| 8.4.1 | Bent/broken drill bit detection | 349 | |||||||||
| 8.4.2 | Broken drill bit detection | 350 | |||||||||
| 8.4.3 | Broken drill bit detection: fiber optics | 351 | |||||||||
| 8.4.4 | Mechanical thread detection | 352 | |||||||||
| 8.4.5 | Part detection: chute | 353 | |||||||||
| 8.4.6 | Small parts detection | 354 | |||||||||
| 8.4.7 | Part detection: robotic | 355 | |||||||||
| 8.4.8 | Die casting machine protection | 356 | |||||||||
| 8.4.9 | Part detection: assembly | 357 | |||||||||
| 8.4.10 | Part orientation | 358 | |||||||||
| 8.4.11 | Control of sequential operations | 359 | |||||||||
| 8.5 | People and Vehicle Detection | 360 | |||||||||
| 8.5.1 | Tollbooth control | 360 | |||||||||
8.5.2<
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