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List of Illustrations | xiii | |
Preface | xv | |
Acknowledgments | xxvii | |
Part 1. | "Men of Stone and of Iron": The African Slave Trade | |
1.1. | The Beginnings of the Portuguese-African Slave Trade in the Fifteenth Century, as Described by the Chronicler Gomes Eannes de Azurara | 5 |
1.2. | The Enslavement Process in the Portuguese Dominions of King Philip III of Spain in the Early Seventeenth Century | 11 |
1.3. | A Portuguese Doctor Describes the Suffering of Black Slaves in Africa and on the Atlantic Voyage (1793) | 15 |
1.4. | A Young Black Man Tells of His Enslavement in Africa and Shipment to Brazil about the Middle of the Nineteenth Century | 23 |
1.5. | An Ex-Slavetrader's Account of the Enslavement Process in Africa and the Illegal Traffic to Brazil (1848-1849) | 28 |
1.6. | "It Was the Same as Pigs in a Sty": A Young African's Account of Life on a Slave Ship (1849) | 37 |
1.7. | A Slave Revolt at Sea and Brutal Reprisals (1845) | 39 |
1.8. | A British Physician Describes the State of Africans upon Their Arrival in Brazil (1841-1843) | 43 |
1.9. | A British Clergyman's Impressions of the Valongo Slave Market in Rio de Janeiro (1828) | 48 |
Part 2. | "A Hell for Blacks": Slavery in Rural Brazil | |
2.1. | An Italian Jesuit Advises Sugar Planters on the Treatment of Their Slaves (1711) | 55 |
2.2. | A Royal Decree on the Feeding of Slaves and Their Days Off (1701) | 60 |
2.3. | "I Doubt that the Moors Are So Cruel to Their Slaves": The Feeding of Slaves in Late Colonial Bahia | 61 |
2.4. | The Masters and the Slaves: A Frenchman's Account of Society in Rural Pernambuco Early in the Nineteenth Century | 63 |
2.5. | "The African Man Transformed into the American Beast": Slavery in Rural Pernambuco in the 1840s | 71 |
2.6. | Practical Advice on the Management of Plantation Slaves (1847) | 77 |
2.7. | Slave Life on a Plantation in the Province of Rio de Janeiro in the Late Nineteenth Century | 79 |
2.8. | A Medical Report on Slaves on Five Coffee Plantations in the Province of Rio de Janeiro (1853) | 86 |
2.9. | "There Are Plantations Where the Slaves Are Numb with Hunger": A Medical Thesis on Plantation Diseases and Their Causes (1847) | 91 |
2.10. | The Annual Work Routine on Plantations in Maranhao in the Mid-Nineteenth Century | 96 |
2.11. | A Brazilian Senator Comments on the High Mortality among Rural Slave Children in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century | 99 |
2.12. | A Bahian Sugar Planter Registers His Slaves (1872) | 100 |
Part 3. | Slave Life in Cities and at the Mines | |
3.1. | Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro as Seen through Newspaper Advertisements (1821) | 111 |
3.2. | A North American Describes Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro (1846) | 115 |
3.3. | A Royal Navy Surgeon Discusses the Black Coffee Carriers of Rio de Janeiro (1848) | 124 |
3.4. | The Sedan Chair and the Hammock: Urban Transportation in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries | 126 |
3.5. | Slave Prostitutes in the Brazilian Capital (1871) | 129 |
3.6. | Newspaper Advertisements for Black Wet Nurses (1821-1854) | 133 |
3.7. | A French Doctor with Twelve Years of Medical Experience in Brazil Advises Mothers on Choosing a Black Wet Nurse (1843) | 135 |
3.8. | Was the Black Wet Nurse a Transmitter of Disease? A Medical Debate in Rio de Janeiro (1846) | 137 |
3.9. | The Black Wet Nurse: A Status Symbol (1863) | 139 |
3.10. | Slave Workers at the Diamond Washings of Tejuco, Minas Gerais, in the Early Nineteenth Century | 140 |
3.11. | Black Miners at a British-Owned Gold Mine in the 1860s | 143 |
3.12. | "Common Graves": How City Slaves Were Buried | 147 |
Part 4. | "From Babylon to Jerusalem": Slavery and the Catholic Church | |
4.1. | Slavery and Church Doctrine: The Archbishop of Bahia Rules on Slave Evangelization and Aspects of Their Treatment (1707) | 154 |
4.2. | "Children of God's Fire": A Seventeenth-Century Jesuit Finds Benefits in Slavery but Chastizes Masters for Their Brutality in a Sermon to the Black Brotherhood of Our Lady of the Rosary | 163 |
4.3. | A Jesuit Friar Writes on Slave Marriage and Immoral Acts Forced by Masters upon Their Slaves (1700) | 174 |
4.4. | The Black Brotherhood of Our Lady of the Rosary in Recife in the Eighteenth Century | 178 |
4.5. | The Archbishop of Bahia Staunchly Supports Slavery and the Slave Trade (1794) | 180 |
4.6. | Slaves as Prizes in a Lottery Benefiting the Santa Casa da Misericordia in Ouro Preto (1825) | 182 |
4.7. | A Catholic Brotherhood Is Authorized to Buy and Sell Slaves (1842) | 185 |
4.8. | A British Resident of Pernambuco Describes the Beneficial Effects of Catholicism on Slaves, Notably upon Those Belonging to Plantations of the Benedictine Order (about 1815) | 185 |
4.9. | A Slave Revolt at a Carmelite Estate in Para (1865) | 192 |
4.10. | "The Negroes Were Holding Their Saturnalia": A Popular Festival at the Church of Our Lady of Bomfim in Bahia (1860) | 194 |
Part 5. | Relations between the Races | |
5.1. | "The Fact Remains that They Are Black": Racial Attitudes in Eighteenth-Century Portugal and Brazil | 203 |
5.2. | "Even a Considerable Tinge Will Pass for White": A British Resident of Pernambuco Analyzes Brazilian Racial and Social Categories Early in the Nineteenth Century | 210 |
5.3. | Four Classes of Blacks: The Observations of a British Clergyman in Rio de Janeiro (1828) | 216 |
5.4. | Official Acts Opposing or Outlawing Discrimination against Mulattoes and Free Blacks (1689 and 1849) | 220 |
5.5. | The Influence of Black and Mulatto Household Slaves upon the Character of the Brazilian Upper Class | 221 |
5.6. | Racial Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Maranhao | 225 |
5.7. | "Who Am I?" A Mulatto Ex-Slave Ridicules in Verse the Bigotry of His Racially Mixed Fellow Brazilians (1859) | 229 |
5.8. | A Popular Verse Suggests Portuguese and Brazilian Attitudes toward Racial Mixing (1826) | 231 |
5.9. | A Renowned Brazilian Mulatto Encounters Prejudice in New York but Is Rescued by Brazilian Friends: A Contrast in Race Relations (1873) | 232 |
Part 6. | "Peculiar Legislation": Slavery and the Law | |
6.1. | "This Dark Blotch on Our Social System": An Analysis of the Legal Status of Slaves and Freedmen in Brazilian Society (1866) | 237 |
6.2. | Legal Restrictions on the Activities of Slaves and Free Non-Whites in Portugal (1521, 1545, 1559, and 1621) | 245 |
6.3. | Restrictions on the Activities of Slaves in Eighteenth-Century Brazil | 247 |
6.4. | Special Legal Provisions Concerning Slaves Promulgated in the First Years of the Empire | 251 |
6.5. | The Government of Bahia Orders Special Measures to Restrict and Control the Province's Slave Population (1822) | 254 |
6.6. | The Province of Rio de Janeiro Restricts the Activities of Slaves, Free Africans, and Other Foreigners to Reduce the Threat of Slave Rebellion (1836) | 256 |
6.7. | Local Ordinances Bearing on Slavery from Six Provincial Law Collections (1833-1866) | 259 |
6.8. | Could a Slave Acquire His Freedom against His Master's Will by Offering Him His Value? Two Legal Opinions and the Negative Decision of the Council of State (1853-1854) | 267 |
6.9. | A Master Abuses His Adolescent Slave Girl: A Court Case of 1883-1884 | 273 |
6.10. | "And We Are the Best of Masters!": An Abolitionist Writes on the Legal System, Punishment, and the Extraordinary Power of the Master Class (1837) | 281 |
Part 7. | "Shamefully Torn before Thy Eyes": Corporal Punishment | |
7.1. | The Governor of Grao Para and Maranhao Informs the Portuguese King of Cruel Punishments Inflicted upon Indian Slaves (1752) | 289 |
7.2. | "This Rustic Theology": A Catholic Priest Admonishes Slaveholders about the Cruel Punishment of Their Slaves (1758) | 292 |
7.3. | Advice on Plantation Punishment from an Agricultural Handbook (1839) | 297 |
7.4. | Lashes Inflicted upon Slaves at the Jail (Calabouco) in Rio de Janeiro (1826) | 301 |
7.5. | "The Scene Was Deeply Afflicting": A Britisher Describes the Punishment of a Slave at the Rio Calabouco Early in the Nineteenth Century | 303 |
7.6. | "This, Then, Is Not a Crime": The Trial of a Coffee Planter Accused of Brutal Punishment (1878) | 305 |
7.7. | Changing Attitudes: The Minister of Justice Cautions Provincial Presidents on the Dangers of Excessive Punishment (1861) | 314 |
7.8. | A Government Report of the Deaths of Two Slaves Caused by Brutal Punishment (1887) | 315 |
Part 8. | The Perils of Being Black | |
8.1. | An Unconditional Grant of Freedom (1851) | 319 |
8.2. | A Conditional Grant of Freedom (1827) | 319 |
8.3. | The "Liberation" of Eight Legally Free Children (1878) | 320 |
8.4. | A Slave Petitions for Protection from His Master (1876) | 321 |
8.5. | Disposing of Stray Blacks, Beasts, and Cattle (Bens do Evento) (1728) | 322 |
8.6. | The President of Rio Grande do Norte Regulates Disposal of Bens do Evento (1862) | 323 |
8.7. | A Public Notice of Human Bens do Evento Lodged in a Jail in Parana (1857) | 326 |
8.8. | An Auction of Human Bens do Evento in Rio de Janeiro (1867) | 326 |
8.9. | A Lawyer Deplores the Legal Concept of Human Bens do Evento (1873) | 327 |
8.10. | The Precariousness of Freedom: The Statement of a Black Man Named John Eden (1843) | 330 |
8.11. | A Royal Decree Condemning "Free Africans" to Fourteen Years of Involuntary Servitude (1818) | 332 |
8.12. | A Scottish Doctor Reports on the Mistreatment of "Free Africans" (1838) | 333 |
8.13. | An Ex-Guardian of "Free Africans" Describes Their Treatment (1866) | 338 |
8.14. | An "Emancipado" Is Granted His Final Certificate of Freedom (1864) | 339 |
8.15. | The Services of "Ingenuos" (Freeborn Children of Slave Women) Are Placed in Public Auction (1882) | 341 |
8.16. | "This Very Barbarous and Inhuman Traffic": A Bahian Planter-Politician Seeks to Abolish the Inter-Provincial Slave Trade (1854) | 343 |
8.17. | A Britisher Describes the Inter-Provincial Slave Trade of the 1850s | 351 |
8.18. | A Member of the Chamber of Deputies from Bahia Describes the Overland Slave Traffic (1880) | 354 |
8.19. | Slaves Are Bought in Northern Brazil for Shipment to the South | 355 |
8.20. | Father Pompeu's Son | 356 |
Part 9. | "A State of Domestic War": How Slaves Responded | |
9.1. | Newspaper Advertisements Offer Rewards for the Return of Runaways | 362 |
9.2. | A Runaway Bookbinder, Fortunato (1854) | 366 |
9.3. | The Great Seventeenth-Century Quilombo of Palmares: A Chronicle of War and Peace | 366 |
9.4. | "White Man Won't Come Here": A Twentieth-Century Folk Memory of Palmares | 377 |
9.5. | "The Armadillo's Hole": A Predatory Quilombo Near Bahia (1763) | 379 |
9.6. | The Police Chief of Rio de Janeiro Suggests Ways to Eliminate Quilombos Near the City (1824) | 381 |
9.7. | "All the Huts Were Burned": The Destruction of Quilombos Near Rio de Janeiro (1876) | 384 |
9.8. | The Destruction of Quilombos in Maranhao (1853) | 386 |
9.9. | "A Sort of Enchanted Land": Quilombos of the Amazon Valley in the 1850s | 389 |
9.10. | The Captured Residents of a Runaway-Slave Settlement Are Claimed as Slaves but Freed by a Legal Decision (1877) | 392 |
9.11. | Slaves of Minas Gerais Plot Revolt (1719) | 394 |
9.12. | "The Slaves' View of Slavery": A Plantation Rebellion Near Ilheus, Bahia, and the Rebels' Written Demands for a Settlement | 397 |
9.13. | Slaves Rebel in the Captaincy of Bahia (1814) | 401 |
9.14. | Soldiers and Africans Clash in Bahia's Streets (1835) | 406 |
9.15. | Insubordination, Assassinations, Rebellions, Conspiracies, and Runaways: A Report of the Minister of Justice (1854) | 411 |
Part 10. | "The Noblest and Most Sacred Cause": The Abolition Struggle | |
10.1. | "Perhaps No Nation Ever Sinned More against Humanity than Portugal": Brazil's First Prime Minister Fires an Opening Salvo in the Stuggle against Slavery (1823) | 418 |
10.2. | A Defense of the Slave Trade in Response to British-Inspired Abolitionism (1823) | 427 |
10.3. | Proposals for Gradually Abolishing Slavery (1865) | 431 |
10.4. | "Slave Property Is as Sacred as Any Other": A Chamber Member Opposes Free-Birth Legislation (1871) | 436 |
10.5. | "As If It Were a Crime to Be Born": A Mulatto Senator Passionately Defends the Free-Birth Law (1871) | 446 |
10.6. | "We Are Seeking Our Country's Highest Interests": An Abolitionist Analyzes Slavery and Calls for a Break with the Past (1883) | 451 |
10.7. | A Municipal Chamber in Sao Paulo Gives Its Opinions on the Slavery and Labor Questions (1885) | 458 |
10.8. | The Mulatto Editor and Abolitionist, Jose do Patrocinio, Condemns the Government's Slavery Policy (1885) | 462 |
10.9. | An Ex-Abolitionist Recalls the Anti-Slavery Struggle in Sao Paulo (1918) | 466 |
10.10. | "Ceasing to Consider the Slave a Mere Laboring Machine": A Paulista Senator Calls for Quick Solutions to the "Servile Question" (December, 1887) | 472 |
10.11. | "Hours of Bitterness and Terror": A Planter's Account of the Ending of Slavery in Sao Paulo (March 19, 1888) | 476 |
10.12. | "Slavery Is Declared Abolished" (May 13, 1888) | 480 |
Chronology of Important Events | 483 | |
Glossary of Portuguese, African, and Brazilian Terms | 489 | |
Selected Bibliography | 494 | |
Index | 499 |
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