Analytical Applications of Ultrasound Book

Foreword     V
Preface     VII
Introduction: Fundamentals of Ultrasound and Basis of its Analytical Uses     1
Introduction     1
Physical Principles of Ultrasound     4
Factors influencing cavitation     5
Chemical Aspects of Ultrasound     10
Some rules of sonochemistry     11
Types of Analytically Useful Ultrasound Devices: Advantages and Disadvantages     12
The piezoelectric transducer     12
Commercial ultrasound apparatus for analytical applications     14
Maintenance and troubleshooting of ultrasound devices     27
Ultrasonics, Hearing and Health     30
Using Ultrasound to Assist Various Steps of the Analytical Process     31
References     33
Generalities on Ultrasound-Assisted Sample Preparation     35
Generalities on Sample Preparation: The Concept of "Sample Preparation"     35
Preparation of Solid Samples     38
Definitions     38
Misused terms     42
Preparation of Liquid Samples     44
Ultrasound-assisted liquid sample preparation involving chemical reactions     44
Ultrasound-assisted liquid sample preparation without chemical reaction     45
Preparation of Heterogeneous Samples     46
Ultrasound-assisted filtration and aggregation     46
Ultrasound-assisted dissolution of the solid phase in heterogeneous samples     47
Ultrasound-assisted formation of a solid phase: sonocrystallization and sonoprecipitation     47
Ultrasound-assisted gas-liquid systems     48
Discrete versus Continuous Approaches to Ultrasound-Assisted Sample Preparation     49
Commercial and custom equipments for ultrasound-assisted sample preparation     49
Analytical Uses of Ultrasound Prior to Sample Preparation     56
Ultrasound-assisted cleaning     56
Ultrasound-assisted degassing     62
Ultrasonic atomization     64
References     65
Ultrasound-Assisted Sample Digestion     69
Introduction     69
Influence of Ultrasound on Sample Digestion     70
Effects involved in ultrasound-assisted sample digestion     70
Variables affecting ultrasound-assisted sample digestion     71
Ultrasound-Assisted Soft Digestion (USASD)     75
Scope of ultrasound-assisted soft digestion     75
Experimental checking of USASD mechanisms     77
Applications of USASD     81
Ultrasound-Assisted Strong Digestion (USASTD)     82
Scope of USASTD     82
Digestion media     85
Applications of USASTD     88
Synergistic effects of ultrasound and other auxiliary energies on strong digestion     89
Ultrasound-Assisted Enzymatic Digestion     91
Effect of ultrasound on enzymatic digestion     91
Applications of ultrasound-assisted enzymatic digestion     92
Ultrasound-Assisted Cell Disruption     92
References     95
Ultrasound-Assisted Leaching     99
Introduction     99
Use of Ultrasonic Baths versus Ultrasonic Probes for Leaching     101
Discrete versus Continuous Ultrasound-Assisted Leaching     101
Discrete and continuous ultrasound-assisted leaching     101
Comparison of DUSAL and CUSAL     103
Variables affecting DUSAL and CUSAL     105
Approaches for CUSAL     110
Coupling CUSAL to Other Steps of the Analytical Process     113
Off-line coupling of leaching to subsequent steps of the analytical process     113
On-line coupling of leaching to subsequent steps of the analytical process     114
Ultrasound-Assisted Leaching versus Other Leaching Alternatives     120
Ultrasound-assisted leaching versus conventional Soxhlet leaching     122
Ultrasound-assisted leaching versus supercritical fluid leaching     123
Ultrasound-assisted leaching versus microwave-assisted leaching     124
Applications Of USAL     124
Discrete ultrasound-assisted leaching     124
Continuous ultrasound-assisted leaching     133
Ultrasound assistance to other leaching techniques     134
Ultrasound-Assisted Bioleaching     135
References     137
Ultrasound Assistance to Heterogeneous Systems     143
Introduction     143
Ultrasound-Assisted Slurry Formation     143
Types of devices for ultrasound-assisted slurry formation     144
Variables influencing ultrasound-assisted slurry formation     145
Analytical applications of ultrasound-assisted slurries     149
Ultrasound-assisted slurry formation versus other sample preparation methods     152
Non-analytical ultrasound-assisted slurry formation     153
Ultrasound-Assisted Agglomeration or Aggregation     153
Basic mechanisms of ultrasound-assisted agglomeration     154
Variables influencing ultrasound-assisted agglomeration     155
Applications of ultrasound-assisted agglomeration      159
Ultrasound-Assisted Filtration     161
Mechanisms of ultrasound-assisted filtration     163
Variables influencing ultrasound-assisted filtration     164
Dewatering: a broad application field of ultrasound-assisted filtration     168
Filterless ultrasound-assisted filtration     169
Sonophoresis     170
Mechanism of ultrasound action in transdermal transport     170
Biological effects of ultrasound     171
Variables influencing sonophoresis     171
Ultrasound devices for sonophoresis     175
Synergistic effects of ultrasound on transdermal transport     175
Future trends in sonophoresis     175
Ultrasound-Assisted Crystallization (Sonocrystallization)     176
Effects of ultrasound on crystallization     177
Ultrasound-related variables and their effects on crystallization     180
Special ultrasound-assisted crystallization systems     183
Ultrasound-Assisted Nebulization     184
Ultrasound-assisted aerosolization     185
Ultrasound-assisted spraying     185
Ultrasound-Assisted Defoaming     186
Mechanism of ultrasound-assisted defoaming     186
Variables influencing ultrasound-assisted defoaming      187
Ultrasound-Assisted Degassing     187
References     188
Ultrasound Assistance to Analytical Heterogeneous Liquid-Liquid Systems     193
Introduction     193
Ultrasound-Assisted Liquid-Liquid Extraction     193
Variables influencing ultrasound-assisted liquid-liquid extraction     193
Discrete ultrasound-assisted liquid-liquid extraction approaches     194
Continuous ultrasound-assisted liquid-liquid approaches     196
Conclusions     202
Ultrasound-Assisted Homogenization And Emulsification     202
Ultrasound-assisted emulsification     203
Continuous and discrete ultrasound-assisted emulsification     205
Variables influencing ultrasound-assisted emulsification     211
Applications of ultrasound-assisted emulsification     217
Joint Use of Ultrasound and Liposomes: An Analytical Tool     220
Ultrasound-assisted liposome preparation     221
Ultrasound-assisted applications of liposomes     222
References     224
Ultrasound-Assisted Analytical Chemical Reactions     227
Introduction     227
Ultrasound-Assisted Derivatization     227
Depolymerization reactions     228
Redox reactions     228
Esterification reactions     228
Alkylation reactions     230
Addition reactions     231
Ethylation of organometallic compounds     232
Complex formation     232
Ultrasound-Assisted Oxidation Reactions     233
Oxidation of inorganic species     233
Degradation of organometallic compounds prior to metal determination     238
Oxidation of organic matter for chemical oxygen demand determination     240
Fast oxidation of oil for correlation with its oxidative stability     243
Ultrasound-Assisted Hydrolysis Reactions     246
Hydrolysis of phenol compounds     246
Hydrolysis of carbohydrates     247
Experience in Sonochemistry to be Exploited in Analytical Chemistry     248
Ultrasound-related variables and their effects on chemical reactions     248
Homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions     249
Conclusions     251
References     251
Ultrasound Assistance for Improving Detection Techniques     255
Introduction     255
Ultrasound-Assisted Nebulization     255
Use of ultrasonic nebulizers with atomic spectrometers     256
Ultrasound-assisted electrospray formation     263
Ultrasound-Assisted Levitation     264
Levitation techniques     266
Approaches to acoustic levitation     270
Applications of acoustic levitation     278
Ultrasound Assistance to Electroanalytical Techniques     281
Influence of ultrasound on electroanalytical processes     281
Experimental devices used for ultrasound assistance to electroanalytical techniques     287
Applications of ultrasound-assisted electroanalytical techniques     290
References     292
Ultrasound-Based Detection Techniques     299
Introduction     299
Ultrasound Generation and Detection in Ultrasound-Based Detection Techniques     300
Piezoelectric ultrasound generators and detectors     302
Electromagnetic ultrasound generators and detectors     303
Optical ultrasound generators and detectors     305
Ways of Using Ultrasound in Ultrasound-Based Detection Techniques     306
Sample-Ultrasound Interaction in Ultrasound-Based Detection Techniques     307
Sample-Ultrasound interaction     308
Contact and non-contact sample-ultrasound interaction as a function of the type of ultrasound wave     309
Types Of Responses and Measurements in Ultrasound-Based Detection Techniques     310
Basic principles of ultrasonic primary responses in ultrasound-based detection techniques     310
Basic principles of ultrasonic secondary responses in ultrasound-based detection techniques     325
Types of measurements     330
Signal processing     333
Ultrasound-Based Detection Techniques     333
Ultrasonic spectrometry     334
Ultrasound resonance spectrometry     334
Laser-based ultrasound detection techniques     335
Ultrasonic relaxation spectroscopy (URS)     337
Ultrasonic diffraction grating spectroscopy (UDGS)     337
Other ultrasound-based detection techniques     338
General Schemes of Ultrasound-Based Spectroscopic Instruments     338
Laboratory-made instruments for ultrasound-based measurements     338
Commercial instruments for ultrasound-based measurements     342
Conclusions     347
References     347
Applications of Ultrasound-Based Detection Techniques     351
Introduction     351
Ultrasonic Analysis of Solid Samples     353
Ultrasonic parameters     353
Determination of elastic constants     354
Microstructure and thickness studies using ultrasound-based detection techniques     359
Evolution monitoring     362
Ultrasound-based determination of fatigue, damage and degradation     364
Membrane compaction and fouling-cleaning studies by ultrasonic time-domain reflectometry     365
Medical applications of ultrasound-based detection techniques     368
Analytical applications of ultrasound-based detection techniques to solids     368
Ultrasonic Analysis of Liquid Samples     369
Variables Influencing ultrasound measurements in liquid systems     370
Ultrasound-assisted detection and liquid systems     371
Ultrasonic Analysis of Heterogeneous Samples     379
Solid-liquid samples     379
Solid-gas samples     382
Liquid-gas samples     384
Conclusion     385
References     385
List of Abbreviations     339
Index     393