Evidence-Based Practice: Logic and Critical Thinking in Medicine (Evidence-Based Practice Series) Book

	List of Illustrations	ix
	Philosopher's Foreword	xiii
	Physician's Foreword	xv
	A Word From the Authors	xix
	Reader's Bookshelf	xxiii
Part 1	Theory and Methodological Foundations
Chapter 1	From Philosophy to Logic, From Logic to Medicine: Fundamental Definitions and Objectives of this Book	3
1.1	Why Are Logic and Critical Thinking Needed in Our Practice, Research, and Communication? Why Read This Book?	5
1.2	Medicine as Art and Science	8
1.3	Philosophy in Medicine or Philosophy of Medicine?	9
1.4	Philosophy of Science, Scientific Method, Evidence, and Evidence-based Medicine	13
1.5	Thinking, Logic, Reasoning, and Critical Thinking	15
1.6	Where in Medicine May We Find Practical Applications and Practical Uses of Philosophy, Logic, and Critical Thinking and Their Expected Benefits?	17
	References	19
Chapter 2	Logic in a Nutshell I: Reasoning and Underlying Concepts: What Is Required? Does It Make Sense?	23
2.1	A Brief Historical Note	25
2.2	Logic in General and Logic in Medicine	26
2.3	Reasoning and Arguments	28
2.4	Components and Architecture of Reasoning and Arguments: What Is Required?	29
2.4.1	Classical layout of arguments: premises and conclusions	29
2.4.2	Toulmin's modern scheme for layout of arguments	31
2.4.3	Reconstructing arguments from the natural language of daily life	36
2.5	Evaluation of Reasoning and Argument: Does It Make Sense?	41
2.5.1	Criteria for good reasoning	41
2.5.2	Sources of justified premises	46
2.5.3	Criteria for good arguments and good argumentation	49
2.6	Fallacies: Definition, Classification, and Examples	52
2.6.1	Definition of a fallacy	52
2.6.2	Classification of fallacies	53
2.6.3	Examples of fallacies	55
2.7	Conclusions	56
	References	56
Chapter 3	Logic in a Nutshell II: Types of Reasoning and Arguments: How Can We Reason and Argue Better?	61
3.1	Deduction, Induction, and Abduction	63
3.2	Classical Aristotelian Logic	68
3.2.1	Testing categorical syllogisms by diagramming	70
3.2.2	Syllogisms in everyday communication	76
3.3	Contemporary Logic	78
3.4	Historical Note on Indian Logic	78
3.5	Uncertainty and Probability in Medicine	79
3.6	Chaos Theory in Medicine	82
3.7	Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic	83
3.7.1	Distinction between fuzzy logic and fuzzy set theory	83
3.7.2	Paradigm of fuzziness in medicine	84
3.7.3	Essentials of fuzzy reasoning in fuzzy logic	87
3.8	Conclusions: Implications of Logic for Medicine	89
	References	93
Chapter 4	Critical Thinking in a Nutshell: What Is "Critical" and What Is Not?	99
4.1	Definition of Critical Thinking	101
4.2	A Checklist for Critical Thinking	109
4.2.1	Problem identification and analysis: What's in focus?	110
4.2.2	Clarification of meaning: What kind of study for what kind of question? What does this mean?	111
4.2.3	Gathering evidence: What basic relevant information can we obtain?	112
4.2.4	Assessing evidence: How good is our basic information?	112
4.2.5	Inferring conclusions: What follows?	114
4.2.6	Other considerations: What else is relevant to the problem?	114
4.2.7	Overall judgment: What is our stand on the problem?	114
4.3	Practical Example of Critical Thinking to Solve a Health Problem: The Challenge of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM)	118
4.3.1	Identification of the problem	118
4.3.2	Analysis of the problem	120
4.3.3	Clarification of meaning: What is CAM?	121
4.3.4	Arguments for CAM interventions	125
4.3.5	Explanations of the popularity of CAM	128
4.3.6	Methods of investigating claims made by CAM proponents	129
4.3.7	Assessment of evidence in CAM studies	130
4.3.8	Cause-effect reasoning in CAM studies	131
4.3.9	Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of CAM research	132
4.3.10	Alternative methods of evaluating CAM claims	132
4.3.11	Summary remarks about CAM	133
4.3.12	Complementary and alternative medicine in medical education and practice	134
4.4	Conclusions	135
	References	137
Part 2	Practical Applications
Chapter 5	Logic in Research: Critical Writing and Reading of Medical Articles: What Do These Results Really Prove? How to Write and Read Discussion and Conclusions Sections	147
5.1	Classification and Structure of Medical Articles	150
5.2	Causes and Their Effects	152
5.2.1	Historical milestones	153
5.2.2	Contributions of present generations	154
5.2.3	How a cause-effect relationship is demonstrated or refuted	157
5.3	Medical Articles as Arguments	161
5.3.1	Warrants for conclusions of a causal relationship	162
5.3.2	Arguments at the core of Discussion and Conclusions sections of medical articles	163
5.4	Fallacies in Causal Reasoning and Argument	167
5.5	Conclusions and Remedies to Consider	172
	References	175
Chapter 6	Logic and Critical Thinking in a Clinician's Daily Practice: Talking and Listening to Colleagues and Patients: Am I Clear Enough? You've Got It Right!	179
6.1	Patient Logic	183
6.2	Physician Logic and Reasoning	185
6.2.1	Building up the history of the case and making a clinical examination	186
6.2.2	Making a diagnosis	187
6.2.3	Treatment	196
6.2.4	Prognosis and risk assessment	199
6.2.5	Making decisions about a particular patient in a particular setting: phronesis in medicine?	202
6.3	Logic in Communication with Patients	206
6.3.1	Understanding patients' statements and reasoning	207
6.3.2	Assessment and diagnosis of psychiatric patients	208
6.4	Logic in Communication with Peers	210
6.4.1	Verbal communication: rounds and consults	210
6.4.2	Written communication: Hospital and office charts and reports	215
6.5	Conclusions: Logic in Communication with the Outside World	219
	References	219
Chapter 7	Communicating with the Outside World: Are We on the Same Wavelength?	225
7.1	Our Points of Contact in the Community	227
7.2	Physicians in Courts of Law: Their Contributions to Decision-making in Tort Litigation	229
7.2.1	What to expect when dealing with decision-making legal bodies	230
7.2.2	Cause-effect challenges: General and specific	231
7.2.3	Emergence of clinical guidelines and their role in courts of law	239
7.2.4	Reflective thinking in courts of law	241
7.3	Argumentation About Cases Before Worker Compensation Boards and Other Civic Bodies	241
7.4	Dealing with Health Problems in the Media and on the Political or Entertainment Stage	242
7.5	Conclusions	246
	References	246
	Concluding Remarks	251
	Glossary	259
	About the Authors	279
	Index	281