Genetically Engineered Crops: Interim Policies, Uncertain Legislation Book

About the Editor     xi
Contributors     xiii
Acknowledgments     xxiii
Introduction. Genetic Engineering of Crops: Science Meets Civil Society's Response     xxv
Abbreviations     xxxi
Science and the Future
The Birth of Synthetic Biology and the Genetic Mode of Production   Sheldon Krimsky     3
Biotechnology: Evolution or Revolution?     4
First-Generation Fears About Gene Splicing: Laboratory Hazards     7
Emerging Industrial Sectors     9
Second-Generation Controversies: Environmental Releases of GEOs     12
Third-Generation Biotech Controversies: Globalization     16
Conclusion     19
Controversy Around Terminology and Novelty: Engineered, Modified Biotechnology, and Transgenics   Brian Ellis     23
The Classic Period     24
Mother Nature's Genetic Engineer     26
When in Doubt, Reach for Your Gun     27
The Basic Toolkit     27
Choosing Targets     28
Round Two     29
So Many Genes, So Much Time     31
Conclusions     35
Transgenic Crops, Agrobiodiversity, and Agroecosystem Function   Miguel A. Altieri     37
Biotechnology andthe Loss of Agrobiodiversity     40
Ecological Effects of Hrcs     43
Ecological Risks of Bt Crops     46
General Conclusions and Recommendations     50
Ecological Risk Assessment of GE Crops: Getting the Science Fundamentals Right   Michelle Marvier   Sabrina West     57
Environmental Risk Assessment for Ge Crops     59
What Can We Learn from the Longer History of Classical Biological Control?     66
Conclusion     70
Coping with Uncertainty: The Human Health Implications of GE Foods   Paul R. Billings   Peter Shorett     75
Introduction     75
Food Is a Drug     76
Using Toxicology and Epidemiology to Evaluate Food Safety     77
Substantial Equivalence and Its Consequences     78
Nutrition     79
Allergenicity     81
Toxicity     84
Conclusion     86
Future Research Tackling the Technology Divide: A Research Agenda for Crop Biotechnology   Michiel Korthals     91
Introduction     91
The Current State of Affairs: Crisis in Governments, Markets, Civil Societies, and Science and Agriculture     92
Plant Biotechnology and Agriculture     95
Seven Persistent Ethical Problems of Biotechnology     96
Research Agendas of Natural and Social Sciences (Beta-Gamma Interaction): Tackling the Problems     102
Conclusion     106
Next Challenges for Crop GE: Maturing of Governance and Moves Beyond Food Issues   Iain E. P. Taylor     111
Introduction     111
What Can Plants Do for Us?     113
The Environmental Future     117
The Industrial Incentive     118
The Regulatory Future     121
Aquaculture     124
Forestry     125
Environmental Remediation     126
Issues in Current Governance
A Precautionary Framework for Biotechnology   Katherine Barrett   Conrad G. Brunk     133
Introduction     133
The Debate About the Precautionary Principle     135
Burden of Proof     138
Standards of Safety     144
Conclusion     148
The Precautionary Principle and Biotechnology: Guiding a Public Interest Research Agenda   Carolyn Raffensperger     153
Introduction     153
The Precautionary Principle     155
Ethics     156
Precautionary Research: A New Social Contract      158
Public Money for Private Interest     159
Public Interest Research     162
Local to Global     164
Legal Challenges     167
Trade, Science, and Canada's Regulatory Framework for Determining the Environmental Safety of GE Crops   Elisabeth A. Abergel     173
Regulatory and Economic Uncertainty     175
Market Disputes     176
Canada's Risk-based Approach     179
Herbicide-tolerant Canola     185
Scientific Uncertainty and the Canadian Regulatory Framework     185
International Trade and Regulatory Harmonization     190
Smart Regulations     196
Precaution and Science-based Regulations     198
Conclusion     201
Principles Driving U.S. Governance of Agbiotech   Kathleen A. Merrigan     207
No "Special Treatment"     208
Invest in Research and Education     216
Strong Property Rights     220
Future Governance     223
Conclusion     224
Biotechnology Policy in the European Union   Armin Spok     229
Introduction     229
Europe versus the European Union     231
The Limited Importance of EE R&D Policy      232
Overall Regulatory Approach     234
Risk Assessment and Decision Making     235
Directive 90/220/EEC-The Shortcomings of a Harmonization Tool     237
Diverging Framings in GEO Risk Assessments     238
European Publics: Reluctance and Diverging Attitudes Toward Biotechnology     244
The New Regulatory Regime     246
Conclusions     253
Regulatory Regimes for GE Crops in Africa   Jennifer A. Thomson     265
South Africa     265
Kenya     267
Egypt     268
Other Countries     269
GEO Research and Agribusiness in Brazil: Impact of the Regulatory Framework   Marilia Regini Nutti   Maria Jose Amstalden Sampaio   Edson Watanabe     273
Introduction     273
The Brazilian Legal Framework for GM Crops     275
Embrapa's Biosafety Network     277
The Soybean Saga     278
The Labeling Decree No. 4680     279
The Cartagena Protocol     279
Current GEO Labeling Legislation in Brazil     280
Food Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified Foods     283
Environmental Impacts     284
Final Considerations      285
Toward a Liability and Compensation Regime under the Biosafety Protocol   Kristin Dawkins   Josh DuBois     289
Introduction     289
Suggestions for the Development of Biosafety Liability Rules     291
Damage that Should Be Recoverable     291
Remedies     293
Conclusion     297
Challenges to Civil Society
Public Spheres Pushing for Change: Public Participation in the Governance of GE Crops   Simon Joss     305
Introduction     305
Genealogy of Public Debate     308
Participation As Governance     318
Institutional Arenas of Participatory Governance     320
Extrainstitutional Arenas of Participatory Governance     325
Conclusions     333
Risky Delusions: Misunderstanding Science and Misperforming Publics in the GE Crops Issue   Brian Wynne     341
Introduction     341
Objects of Confusion-and Provocation     345
Risk Assessment and Excluded Dimensions of "Uncertainty"     350
From "Unknown Unknowns" to Known Uncertainties: A Tacit Culture of Control     354
Confusions of Meaning: Constructing the Public by "Listening" to It     359
Constructed Risk: Performing "Publics" and Externalizing Responsibility      363
Conclusions: A Learning Science?     366
Index     373