Cardiovascular physiology Book

1	The Circuitry	1
2	Electrical Activity of the Heart	7
	Cardiac Action Potentials Consist of Several Phases	7
	Conduction in Cardiac Fibers Depends on Local Circuit Currents	24
	Cardiac Excitability Depends on the Activation and Inactivation of Specific Currents	26
	The Heart Generates its Own Pacemaking Activity	28
	An Impulse Can Travel Around a Reentry Loop	39
	Afterdepolarizations Lead to Triggered Activity	40
	Electrocardiography Displays the Spread of Cardiac Excitation	43
	Dysrhythmias Occur Frequently and Constitute Important Clinical Problems	46
3	The Cardiac Pump	55
	The Gross and Microscopic Structures of the Heart are Uniquely Designed for Optimal Function	55
	The Cardiac Chambers Consist of Two Atria, Two Ventricles, and Four Valves	68
	The Sequential Contraction and Relaxation of the Atria and Ventricles Constitute the Cardiac Cycle	74
	The Fick Principle is Used to Determine Cardiac Output	78
4	Regulation of the Heartbeat	85
	Heart Rate is Controlled Mainly by the Autonomic Nerves	85
	Myocardial Performance is Regulated by Intrinsic Mechanisms	97
	Myocardial Performance is Regulated by Nervous and Humoral Factors	104
5	Hemodynamics	115
	Velocity of the Bloodstream Depends on Blood Flow and Vascular Area	115
	Blood Flow Depends on the Pressure Gradient	116
	Relationship Between Pressure and Flow Depends on the Characteristics of the Conduits	118
	Resistance to Flow	122
	Flow May be Laminar or Turbulent	125
	Shear Stress on the Vessel Wall	126
	Rheologic Properties of Blood	127
6	The Arterial System	135
	The Hydraulic Filter Converts Pulsatile Flow to Steady Flow	135
	Arterial Elasticity Compensates for the Intermittent Flow Delivered by the Heart	139
	The Arterial Blood Pressure is Determined by Physical and Physiological Factors	141
	The Pressure Curves Change in Arteries at Different Distances from the Heart	148
	Blood Pressure is Measured by a Sphygmomanometer in Human Patients	149
7	The Microcirculation and Lymphatics	155
	Functional Anatomy	155
	The Endothelium Plays an Active Role in Regulating the Microcirculation	159
	The Endothelium Plays a Passive Role in Transcapillary Exchange	160
	The Lymphatics Return the Fluid and Solutes that Escape Through the Endothelium to the Circulating Blood	171
8	The Peripheral Circulation and Its Control	175
	Contraction and Relaxation of Arteriolar Vascular Smooth Muscle Regulate Peripheral Blood Flow	177
	Intrinsic (Local) Control of peripheral Blood Flow	180
	Extrinsic Control of Peripheral Blood Flow is Mediated Mainly by the Sympathetic Nervous System	185
	Balance Between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Factors in Regulation of Peripheral Blood Flow	193
9	Control of Cardiac Output: Coupling of Heart and Blood Vessels	199
	The Vascular Function Curve Relates Central Venous Pressure to Cardiac Output	200
	Cardiac Output and Venous Return are Closely Associated	208
	The Heart and Vasculature are Coupled Functionally	208
	The Right Ventricle Regulates not Only Pulmonary Blood Flow but Also Central Venous Pressure	213
	Heart Rate has Ambivalent Effects on Cardiac Output	216
	Ancillary Factors Affect the Venous System and Cardiac Output	218
10	Coronary Circulation	227
	Functional Anatomy of Coronary Vessels	227
	Coronary Blood Flow is Regulated by Physical, Neural, and Metabolic Factors	229
	Cardiac Oxygen Consumption is a Function of the Work Performed by the Heart	234
	Cardiac Efficiency	235
	Diminished Coronary Blood Flow Impairs Cardiac Function	235
	Coronary Collateral Vessels Develop in Response to Impairment of Coronary Blood Flow	236
11	Special Circulations	241
	Cutaneous Circulation	241
	Skeletal Muscle Circulation	245
	Cerebral Circulation	247
	The Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations are in Series with Each Other	250
	The Renal Circulation Accounts for About 20% of the Cardiac Output	255
	The Splanchnic Circulation Provides Blood Flow to the Gastrointestinal Tract, Liver, Spleen, and Pancreas	260
	Fetal Circulation	264
12	Interplay of Central and Peripheral Factors in the Control of the Circulation	271
	Exercise	272
	Hemorrhage	278
	App: Case Study Answers	289