Nuclear Forensic Analysis Book

1	Introduction	1
1.1	Nuclear Materials	2
1.2	Nuclear Power and Pu Production	4
1.3	Nuclear Weapons and the Cold War	5
1.4	Nuclear Treaties and Nonproliferation Programs	6
1.5	SNM Disposition	8
1.6	Nuclear Proliferation and Terrorism	9
1.7	Nuclear Smuggling	11
1.8	Forensic Goals	13
	References	14
2	Physical Basis of Nuclear Forensic Science	17
2.1	Background	17
2.2	Types of Radioactive Decay	23
2.3	Rate Laws in Radioactive Decay	27
2.4	Atoms, Binding Energy, and Chart of the Nuclides	31
2.5	Nuclear Structure, Isomerism, and Selection Rules	42
2.6	Nuclear Reactions	56
2.7	Natural Radioactivity	67
2.8	Fission, Barrier Penetration, and Energy Production	72
	References	84
3	Engineering Issues	89
3.1	Natural versus Synthetic Materials	89
3.2	Recovery of Actinides from the Earth	90
3.3	Separation and Enrichment of U Isotopes	95
3.3.1	Electromagnetic Isotope Separation	98
3.3.2	Gaseous Diffusion	100
3.3.3	Thermal Diffusion	108
3.3.4	Gas Centrifugation	109
3.3.5	Aerodynamic Enrichment	114
3.3.6	Laser Isotope Separation	116
3.3.7	Isotope Enrichment Through Chemical Exchange	118
3.4	Nuclear Reactors, Power, and the Production of Pu and [superscript 233]U	119
3.5	Recovery and Purification of Heavy Elements from Reactor Products	153
3.6	Heavy-Element Metals and Alloys	162
3.7	Summary	169
	References	170
4	Chemistry and Nuclear Forensic Science	175
4.1	Tracers in Inorganic Analysis	175
4.2	Relevant Chemical Properties	181
	References	191
5	Principles of Nuclear Explosive Devices	193
5.1	One-Stage Fission Explosive (Atomic Bomb)	193
5.2	Boosting	199
5.3	Two-Stage Nuclear Explosive (Hydrogen Bomb)	202
5.4	Forensic Analysis of Nuclear-Explosive Debris	203
	References	206
6	Chronometry	207
6.1	Heavy Elements and Fission-Product Chronometers	207
6.2	Granddaughters and Spoof Detection	236
6.3	Detection of Incomplete Fuel Reprocessing	237
	References	240
7	Techniques for Small Signatures	241
7.1	Chemical Separations and Reduction of Background	241
7.2	Radiochemical Milking	245
7.3	Mass Spectrometry and Microanalysis	249
7.4	Radiation Detection	250
7.4.1	Interaction of Radiation with Matter	250
7.4.2	Decay Characteristics	251
7.4.3	Gas-Phase Detectors	256
7.4.4	Solid-State Detectors	263
7.4.5	Scintillation Detectors	269
7.4.6	Empirical Application and Spectra	273
	References	279
8	Collateral Forensic Indicators	281
8.1	Stable Isotopes	281
8.1.1	Lead	281
8.1.2	Oxygen	282
8.2	Inorganic Elements	282
8.3	Organic Analyses	285
8.3.1	High Explosives	285
8.3.2	Hairs and Fibers	286
8.3.3	Inks and Papers	287
8.3.4	Fingerprints	288
8.3.5	Other	288
	References	289
9	Sample Matrices and Collection	291
9.1	Soil/Sediment Matrices	291
9.2	Vegetation Matrices	292
9.3	Water Matrix	293
9.4	Fauna Matrices	294
9.5	Other Matrices	294
9.6	Collection Tactics	295
	References	297
10	Radiochemical Procedures	299
10.1	Dissolution	299
10.2	Redox	301
10.3	Separations	302
10.4	MS Analysis and Reagent Purity	308
	References	309
11	Inorganic/Isotopic Sample Preparation	311
11.1	Alpha Counting	311
11.2	Beta Counting	312
11.3	Gamma Counting	313
11.4	Inorganic Techniques	313
12	Organic Sample Preparation	317
12.1	Extraction	317
12.2	Solid-Phase Microextraction	318
12.3	Derivatization	318
	References	319
13	Extraordinary Sample Issues	321
14	Field Collection Kits	323
15	NDA Field Radioactivity Detection	327
	References	333
16	Laboratory Analyses	335
16.1	Radiation Counting Systems	335
16.1.1	Counting Lab	335
16.1.2	Counter Shielding and Systems	337
16.1.3	Particle Detection	339
16.1.3.1	Beta-Particle Counters	339
16.1.3.2	Alpha-Particle Counters	339
16.1.3.3	Gamma-Ray Counters	340
16.1.3.4	Neutron Counters	340
16.1.4	Chemistry Lab Application	341
16.2	Tritium Analysis	342
16.3	Imaging and Microscopy	344
16.3.1	Optical Microscopy	345
16.3.2	Scanning Electron Microscopy	345
16.3.3	Transmission Electron Microscopy	346
16.3.4	Electron Microprobe Analysis	347
16.3.5	X-Ray Microanalysis	348
16.3.6	Infrared Spectroscopy	349
16.4	Isotope MS	350
16.4.1	Isotope-Ratio MS	350
16.4.2	Element MS	352
16.4.3	MS and Microanalysis	354
16.5	Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry	356
16.6	Capillary Electrophoresis	360
	References	361
17	Inferred Production Estimates	367
17.1	Uranium	367
17.2	Plutonium	369
17.3	SNM Stocks	370
17.4	Analysis	372
	References	375
18	Materials Fingerprinting	377
18.1	Criminalistics Comparisons	377
18.2	Material Compositions	378
18.3	Calculations	379
	References	381
19	Source and Route Attribution	383
19.1	Introduction	383
19.1.1	Source Attribution Questions	384
19.1.2	Route Attribution Questions	385
19.2	Forensic Analysis of Interdicted Nuclear Materials	385
19.3	Laboratory Characterization of Nuclear Materials for Source Data	386
19.4	Laboratory Characterization of Nuclear Materials for Route Data	389
19.5	Prioritization of Forensic Tools for Route Attribution	391
19.6	Analytic Techniques for Nuclear Forensic Interrogation	393
19.6.1	Isotopes	393
19.6.2	Elemental Composition/Major and Trace Elements	394
19.6.3	Organic Species	394
19.6.4	DNA	394
19.6.5	Physical and Structural Characteristics	394
19.7	Geolocation and Route Attribution: Real-World Examples	395
19.7.1	Pb-Isotope Fingerprinting	395
19.7.2	O-Isotope Fingerprinting	395
19.7.3	Other Isotopic Ratios	397
19.8	Reference Data for Enhanced Interpretation	397
	References	399
20	Forensic Investigation of a Highly Enriched Uranium Sample Interdicted In Bulgaria	401
20.1	Analyses of Uranium Oxide	403
20.2	Analyses of Collateral Evidence	411
20.2.1	Lead Container	411
20.2.2	Yellow Wax	412
20.2.3	Paper Liner and Label	416
20.2.4	Glass Ampoule	416
20.3	Attribution	417
	References	419
21	Counterforensic Investigation of U.S. Enrichment Plants	421
21.1	Background	421
21.2	Sampling	421
21.3	Radiochemistry	423
21.4	Results	430
21.5	Interpretation	430
21.6	Summary	444
	References	445
22	Nuclear Smuggling Hoax - D-38 Counterweight	447
22.1	Background and Analyses	447
22.2	Results and Discussion	448
	Reference	449
23	Nuclear Smuggling Hoax - Sc Metal	451
23.1	Background and Analyses	451
23.2	Results and Discussion	452
	References	452
24	Fatal "Cold Fusion" Explosion	453
24.1	Background and Analyses	453
24.2	Results and Discussion	454
24.3	Commentary	456
	References	459
25	Questioned Sample from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency	461
25.1	Background and Nondestructive Analysis	461
25.2	Radiochemistry and Results	463
25.3	Discussion	465
25.4	Summary	472
	References	473
	Index	475